numerous defenders of free trade, as, for example, Sanromà, Figuerola, Bona y Ureta, Ochoa, &c., who wrote on that subject in the review Gaceta economista; and a large number of financial writers, as Canga y Arguelles, the author of a brief summary (Elementos de la ciencia de hacienda, 1833), and of a large dictionary (Diccionario de hacienda, London, 1826-27, 5 vols.), Conde (Examen de la hacienda publica de España, 1853), and Lopez Narvaez, who wrote a somewhat superficial treatise, Tratado de hacienda publica (1856); L. Maria Pastor (died 1872), the author of some good treatises on taxation and on credit (Filosofia del credito, Madrid, 1858, 2nd ed.), and of an excellent history of public debt in Spain (Historia de la deuda publica española, Madrid, 1863).

Still more recently a treatise by Piernas y Hurtado, and by De Miranda y Eguia (Manual de instituciones de hacienda publica española, 2nd ed., Madrid, 1875), has appeared, containing much information on the history and present organisation of Spanish finance, and another, more brief, by F. Lozano y Montes (Compendio de hacienda publica, Madrid, 1876).

Among the monographs concerning other points of political economy, there is a most interesting history of Spanish banks by R. Santillan (Historia sobre los Bancos, &c., Madrid, 1865, 2 vols. 4to.), and an essay on landed property in Spain by De Cardenas (Ensayo sobre la historia de la propriedad territorial en España, Madrid, 1873-75, 2 vols. 4to.). The superficialities of the Spanish economists and their almost entire ignorance of any other than Spanish and French books make the economic interest of their work centre upon such writings as these, in which the economic institutions of their

country are historically described and criticised with special competence.

The state of things in Portugal was even less favourable to economic science than in Spain. After 1803 Rodriguez de Brito proposed that it should be taught in the faculty of law. But the proposal was not taken up, as public opinion was decidedly against it, having been for a long time under the influence of the restrictive system which had been inaugurated in the previous century by the Marchese di Pombal. We learn this fact from José Accursio das Neves, the author of some good pamphlets (Variedades sobre objectos relativos as artes, commercio e manufacturas, &c., 1814 et seq.).

The first Portuguese compendium of political economy, the greater part of which is taken from the works of Tracy and Storch, was written by José Ferreira-Borges (Instituições de econ. polit., Lisbon, 1834). Others have appeared since, as the Preleçcões of Ag. Alb. da SilveiraPinto (Oporto, 1838), the Noções elementares of Ant. d'Oliveira-Marreca (Lisbon, 1838), and a very short French compendium by Pinheiro-Ferreira (Précis d'un cours d'écon. polit., Paris, 1840, 12mo.).

A chair of economics having been founded at the University of Coimbra in 1836, it was given to Professor Adriano Pereira Forjaz de Sampajo. He published a compendium, the first edition (1839) being formed on the model of Say's Catechism, and the second (1841) on that of Rau's Treatise. It was much enlarged in later editions, and especially in the fifth. Though written with very little originality, and simply folllowing the French writers, it became the text-book of the University, and caused earlier compilations to be forgotten.

A. Pereira Forjaz de Sampajo, Novos elementos de

economia politica e estadistica (Coimbra, 1858-59, 3 vols. 8vo.)

Later on the public teaching of the science of finance was introduced, which occasioned the publication of two financial works. One was the Estudos financeiros of Mendonça Cortez, also a professor at Coimbra; the other the Introduçcão a sciencia das finanças of Carnido de Figueiredo (Coimbra, 1874).

Among the monographs we may record that by Morato Roma on money (De la monnaie, Lisbon, 1861), Serzedello's work on banks (Os bancos, &c., Lisbon, 1867), and that by the Visconte di Benalcanfor on the Vienna Exhibition (Vienna e a Exposiçao, Lisbon, 1874).

CHAPTER VII.

CONTEMPORARY ITALIAN ECONOMISTS.

THE economic works published in Italy during the present century are not so interesting historically as those of the last century. But we may say without exaggeration that the science can boast of some distinguished Italian contemporaries, whose names demand at least a passing mention.

The progress of the science has necessarily been characterised by the political conditions of the various provinces of the peninsula. We may therefore conveniently divide our present account into four distinct periods.

§ 1. 1796-1830.

The progress of economic science during the first thirty years of the nineteenth century was kept back by various circumstances. These were :-The mistrust of government; the deficiencies in public instruction; the difficult relations existing between the various Italian States, and between them and other countries.

There were, however, excellent writers who struggled courageously with the difficulties of the time, and proved

themselves competent to join in economic controversies. The important collection of the Scrittori classici italiani di economia politica was made by the diligent Baron Pietro Custodi, subsidised by the government of the Italian Republic, and later by that of the kingdom of Italy. It was published at Milan between 1802 and 1816, and contains a large number of works belonging to the second half of the previous century, and of earlier works which had been more or less forgotten.

After the fall of the kingdom of Italy several economic writings were printed from time to time in reviews and academic collections; among which it will be enough to mention the following:-The Biblioteca italiana of Milan (from 1816 onwards); the Conciliatore (Milan, 1818-19), which was soon suppressed by Austrian policy; the Atti dell' Accademia dei Georgofili, and the Antologia of Florence. The two last works vigorously defended the principles of economic liberty against the protectionist ideas taught in the schools and supported by Gioja.

Longer elementary treatises and compendiums, which were more or less in agreement with the theories of Adam Smith and Say, succeeded one another at intervals. The first to appear was a volume by the Neapolitan professor, Luca de Samuele Cagnazzi (1813). Then came the long and not very thoughtful works of Carlo Bosellini (died 1827), a native of Modena, and of Adeodato Ressi, of Romagna, a professor in the University of Pavia (died 1822). Better arranged are the scholastic works of two Sicilian professors, Ignazio Sanfilippo, of the University of Palermo, and Salvatore Scuderi, of the University of Catania, both protectionists. The Nuovo Prospetto delle Scienze economiche (Series I.,