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PART III.

POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.

EUROPE.

1. Boundaries.-North, the Arctic Ocean; West, the Atlantic; South, the Strait of Gibraltar, the Mediterranean, Sea of Marmora, Black Sea, and Mount Caucasus; East, the Caspian Sea, the River Ural, the Ural Mountains, and the River Kara.

Continental Europe lies between the parallels of 36° 1' and 71° 9′ N., and between the meridians of 9° 30′ W., and 65° E.; it occupies 35° 8' of lat. and 74° 30' of lon., and, with the exception of Lapland and part of the government of Arkhangel, is wholly included within the north temperate zone. But insular Europe, including Iceland, Spitzbergen, the Azores, Candia, &c., embraces a much larger area-viz., from lat. 34° 55' (Candia) to 80° 48′ (Spitzbergen), and from lon. 31° 18′ W. (Azores) to 65° E. (Ural Mountains),-being in all, 45° 53′ of lat. and 96° 18' of lon. Grodno, in Russia, in the centre of the continent, is nearly in the same latitude as the centre of Ireland, the south of Labrador, the north of Lake Winnipeg and Queen Charlotte Island, and as Tula, Uralsk, and the middle of Lake Baikal; and nearly in the same longitude as Hammerfest, Tornea, Riga, Lemberg, Klausenburg, Athens, and the east side of Tripoli and Cape Colony. The south-east corner of Sweden is the centre of insular Europe.

2. Form, Dimensions, Extreme Points, and Coast-Line. -Europe is an immense peninsula jutting out from Western Asia, and broken up into a great number of smaller peninsulas, the principal of which are: The Scandinavian, bet. the Baltic and Atlantic; the Danish, bet. the Baltic and North Sea; Brittany, bet. the English Channel and Bay of Biscay; the Spanish, bet. the Atlantic and Mediterranean; the Italian, bet. the Adriatic and Tyrrhenian Sea; the Hellenic Peninsula with Istria and the Morea, bet. the Adriatic and Black Sea; and the Crimea, bet. the G. of Odessa and Sea of Azov. The peninsulas occupy one-fourth of the entire area of the continent.

All these, with the single exception of the Danish, stretch out in a southerly direction, and have mountain-ranges occupying their entire length. This remarkable law holds good with almost all the peninsulas

of the globe. The extreme length of Europe, from Cape St Vincent in Portugal to Orsk in the Ural Mountains, is 3400 miles; extreme breadth, from North Cape in Lapland to Cape Matapan in Greece, 2450 miles. Cape Nordkyn in Norway is the most northern point of the continent; Punta da Tarifa, near Gibraltar, the most southern; Cabo da Roca, in Portugal, the most western; and the Urals, in Perm, the most eastern. Owing to its peculiar form and numerous deep indentations, the coastline greatly exceeds in proportion that of every other continent. It is estimated at nearly 17,000 miles, being one mile of coast to every 225 miles of surface; while Asia has only one to every 550 miles; Africa, one to every 710; and America, one to every 490. The continental boundary does not exceed 2500 miles. It is in a great measure owing to this peculiarity of surrendering herself to the ocean, and her central position in the terrestrial hemisphere, that Europe owes her high civilisation and unrivalled commercial prosperity.

3. Area and Population. The total area of Europe, including the islands, is estimated at 3,843,686 sq. miles, or considerably less than one-fourth the size of Asia. Hence, reckoning the arc of Oceania at 4,500,000 sq. miles, Europe is the smallest of the six great divisions of the globe, of the land-surface of which it embraces only a fourteenth part. Russia embraces much more than a half of its entire area, and the British Isles less than a thirtieth. According to the most recent census of its various states, the population, in 1870, amounted to 288,649,896, or nearly one-fourth of the entire human race. It is by far the most densely peopled of all the continents, having 75 persons to each sq. mile. The seven most densely peopled countries are, Belgium, which has 440 persons to the sq. mile; the Netherlands, 275; the United Kingdom, 253; Italy, 228; South Germany, 191; North German Confederation, 188; France, 182.

4. Political Divisions.-Europe contains, at present, sixtyseven separate states, all of them more or less independent. Of this number 21 belong to the North German Confederation, now represented by Prussia, and 25 to Switzerland. Counting the confederations as forming one State each, we have in all 23 States, the names, areas, populations, and capitals of which will be found in the following table. There are 4 Empires (France, Austria, Russia, and Turkey); 37 Monarchies (including Kingdoms, Grand Duchies, Duchies, and Principalities); and 26 Republics. The various States are arranged in three separate classes, according to their political importance. Great Britain, France, Prussia, Russia, and Austria are called the five Great Powers, because they exercise a decided influence on the political affairs of Europe. Those of the second rank are Spain, Kingdom of Italy, Belgium, Sweden and Norway, and Turkey; while those of the third rank are Portugal, Switzerland, the Netherlands, Greece, Denmark, and the States of South Germany.

5. Isthmuses and Capes.-Isthmus of Corinth, connecting the Morea with Northern Greece; Isthmus of Perekop, connecting the Crimea with the mainland of Russia. The other isthmuses, though numerous, have no distinctive names. Owing to its peninsular character, the capes and headlands of Europe are extremely numerous. The following are the principal

In the Arctic Ocean-C. Nordkyn, in Finmark, the most N. point of the continent; North Cape, in I. Mageröe; C. Nord, N. W. of Iceland. In the Baltic-The Naze, S. of Norway; Skaw, N. of Denmark; Hango Head, S. W. of Finland. In North Sea and Atlantic-Sumburgh Head, S. of Shetland; Dennis Ness, N. of Orkney; Dunnet Head, Duncansby Head, and Cape Wrath, N. of Scotland; Buchanness the most E., Point of Ardnamurchan the most W., and Muli of Galloway the most S. points of Scotland; Lowestoft Ness the most E., South Foreland the most S. E., Lizard Point the most S. W., and Land's End the most W. points of England; Malin Head in the N., Fair Head in the N.E., Carnsore Point in the S.E., C. Clear in the extreme S., and Dunmore Head in the extreme W. of Ireland; Capes Gris-Nez, Barfleur, La Hague, in the English Channel; Raz Point, the extreme N.W. of France; Capes Ortegal and Finisterre, N.W. of Spain; Cabo da Roca, in Portugal, the most W. point of the continent; C. St Vincent, S. W. of Portugal; Pt. Albernos, in the Azores, the most W. point of insular Europe. In the Mediterranean-Punta da Tarifa, in Spain, the most S. point of the continent; Capes de Gata, Palos, St Martin, Creux, E. of Spain; Corso, N. of Corsica; Teulada, S. of Sardinia; Passaro, S. E., and S. Vito, N. W. of Sicily; Spartivento, Nau, and Leuca, S. of Italy; Matapan, S. of Greece; Matala (Crete), the most S. point of insular Europe; Chersonese, S. W. of Crimea; Abcheran, in the Caspian, the E. extremity of Mount Caucasus.

6. Islands. Very numerous, and best arranged in groups or classes, according to the seas in which they are situated :—

In the Arctic Ocean-Novaia Zemlia ("new land") and Vaigatch, N.E. of Russia, and forming an insular prolongation of the Ural Mountains; Spitzbergen and the Seven Sisters, midway between Novaia Zemlia and Greenland, forming the most northern known land on the globe (lat. 80° 48'); Kolguev, at the entrance to the Gulf of Tcheskaia; Mageröe group, fringing the N.W. coast of Finmark; Loffoden Islands, W. of Norway. In the Atlantic-Iceland, 700 miles W. of Norway, and immediately S. of the Polar Circle; Faröe Isles, 35 in number, midway between Iceland and Shetland, and at the northern limit of the growth of grain; the British Isles, 5500 in number, separating the Atlantic from the North Sea (principal, Great Britain, the largest island belonging to Europe, and the seventh largest in the world; Ireland, Anglesea, Isle of Man, Hebrides or Western Islands, Orkney Islands, Shetland Islands, Isle of Wight, Scilly Islands); the Norman or Channel Isles, N. of France; the Azores, a volcanic group, 800 miles W. of Portugal. In the Baltic-The Danish group, between Denmark and Sweden (principal, Seeland, Fühnen, Langeland, Laaland, Falster, Alsen, Bornholm); the Swedish group, S.E. of Sweden (Gothland and Oeland); Rügen, N.W. of Prussia; the Aland Isles, at the entrance of the Gulf of Bothnia; the Livonian group (Oesel and Dago), at the mouth of the Gulf of Riga; Cronstadt or Kotlinoi, in the E. extremity of the Gulf of Finland, with a celebrated Rus

sian fortress. In the Mediterranean-The Balearic Isles, east of Spain (principal, Majorca, Minorca, Iviça, and Formentera); the SardoCorsican group, W. of Central Italy (principal, Sardinia, Corsica, Elba); the Sicilian group, S. of Italy (principal, Sicily, Lipari Isles, Ustica, and Pantellaria); the Maltese group, or Malta, Gozo, and Comino; the Illyrian Archipelago, in the Gulf of Quarnero; the Dalmatian Archipelago, on the W. coast of Dalmatia; the Ionian Isles, W. of Greece; Euboea or Negropont, E. of Hellas; the Cyclades, E. of the Morea; the Sporades, N. of Euboea; Candia, S. E. of the Morea.

7. Seas, Gulfs, and Straits.-No other continent has so many inland seas and arms of the sea. We can enumerate only the following:

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The Mediterranean, between Europe and Africa, 2300 m. long, and 976,000 m. in area. Its principal members are, G. of Lions, G. of Genoa, the Tyrrhenian Sea, bet. Italy and the Sardo-Corsican islands; the Adriatic, bet. Italy and Turkey; Ionian Sea, bet. Greece and Italy; the Egean Sea or Archipelago, bet. Greece and Asia Minor; Sea of Marmora, bet. European and Asiatic Turkey. The Black Sea, bet. Russia and Asiatic Turkey, 690 m. long by 380 m. broad, and having an area of 172,500 sq. m. Its branches are, G. of Odessa, Str. of Kherson, G. of Perekop, Sea of Azov, G. of Sivash or Putrid Sea. The Caspian Sea, S. E. of Russia, 700 m. long, 200 m. broad; area, 178,866 sq. m.; surface 83 feet lower than the Black Sea; drained exclusively by evaporation; probably communicated at a remote period with the Black Sea, at which time its area was vastly larger: belongs more to Asia than to Europe. The White Sea, an inlet of the Arctic Ocean, in the N. of Russia; area, 40,000 sq. m. its parts are, Gulfs of Onega, Kandalak, and Arkhangel; Tcheskaia Gulf, N.E. of Russia; Varanger Fiord, bet. Russia and Norwegian Lapland; West Fiord, bet. Norway and Loffoden Isles. The Baltic, a large inland sea communicating with the North Sea, and separating Central from Northern Europe; length 900 m., br. 180 m.; area, 135,000 sq. m.; shallow throughout, sailing dangerous, tides scarcely perceptible: branches, G. of Bothnia, bet. Sweden and Finland; G. of Finland, S. of Finland; G. of Riga, bet. Livonia and Courland; G. of Dantzic, N. of Prussia; G. of Lubeck, bet. Holstein and Mecklenburg. The North Sea or German Ocean, bet. the British Isles and the continent; length from Shetland to Dover, 700 m.; greatest br., 420 m.; area, 244,000 sq. m.; traversed by immense sand-banks, as the Dogger Bank and Long Forties branches, the Skager Rack, bet. Norway and Denmark, 60 m. broad; the Kattegat, bet. Sweden and Denmark; the Dollart and Zuyder Zee, in the N. of Holland; the English Channel, bet. England and France; the estuary of the Thames, the Wash, the Firths of Forth and Tay, the Moray and Pentland Firths. The Irish Sea, bet. Great Britain and Ireland; branches, North Channel, St George's Channel, Solway Firth, and Bristol Channel. The Bay of Biscay, N. of Spain, famous for its heavy seas and dangerous navigation.

THE PRINCIPAL STRAITS are: Str. of Gibraltar, uniting the Mediterranean with the Atlantic; Str. of Bonifacio, bet. Corsica and Sardinia; Str. of Messina, bet. Italy and Sicily; Str. of Otranto, bet. Italy and Turkey; the Hellespont or Dardanelles, uniting the Archipelago with the Sea of Marmora; the Bosporous, or Str. of Constantinople, uniting the Sea of Marmora with the Black Sea; Str. of Kertch or Yenikaleh, bet. the Black Sea and Sea of Azov; Pentland Firth, bet. Scotland and