a novice, and presented to our holy father, St Francis; and some say that he then assumed his profession as a friar. Such are the words of Brizenus.”

"Nor must a wonderful circumstance be omitted, which, with Brizenus, we transcribe from Ferchius, (c. 5.) that we may obtain the greater eredit. Hence it appears, that the Holy Virgin granted to Dunse inno eence of life, modesty of manners, complete faith, continence, piety, and wisdom. That Paul might not be elated by great revelations, he suffered the blows of Satan; that the subtile doctor might not be inflated by the gifts of the mother of Christ, he was forced to suffer the tribulation of captivity, by a fierce enemy. Gold is tried by the furnace, and the just man by temptation. Edward I. King of England, from the length of his legs, called Longs Kanks, (Longshanks,) had cruelly invaded Scotland, leaving no monument of ancient majesty that he did not seize or destroy, leading to death, or to jail, the most noble and learned men of the country. Among them were twelve friars; and that he might experience the dreadful slaughter and bitter captivity of his country, John of Dunse suffered a miserable servitude; thus imitating the apostle in the graces of God, and the chains he endured."

Being delivered, he studied and taught at Oxford about the year 1300, as appears from his own writings care fully adduced by Wading; and from the same authority, he was a professor at Paris in 1304, whence he was called to Cologne, where he died in 1308. The fables concerning his death are well refuted by Wading; but even these fables lead to an idea, that he was in the prime of life, but exhausted by vast studies. Supposing him about 40 years of age, he was born about 1268.

He may be regarded as the father of philosophical and theological learning in Scotland. An account of his life and labours would embrace the history of scholastic philosophy then in its acme, and might be rendered very interesting, as the history of the aberrations of the human mind is as curious as that of its exertions. But as his works fill several folio volumes, much skill in metaphysics would be

required, as well as great patience and labour.

To return, (for the sole object of this little discussion is to prove, that Dunse was a native of Scotland,) some other points remain to be briefly considered. It is well known, that the word Dunce, immortalized by Pope's Dunciad, is derived from this celebrated writer; as a stupid student was ironically hailed as another Dunce. This popular joke is clearly preserv→ ed in the name of our Scottish village, while we defy all England and Ireland to produce a Dunse.

As to Gilbert Brown's ecclesiastic history, it perhaps only related to his Monastery of Sweetheart; and it is well known that printing being little known in Scotland till about 1580, many works remained in MS. and have thus unfortunately perished. But the events of Dunse's youth being totally unknown to English and Irish story and tradition, the presumption that he was a native of Scotland becomes very cogent, however the testimonies may be undervalued.

When Wading attempts to prove Dunse an Irishman, he says the ancient Scotia was Ireland, which is very true. But that appellation ceased in Great Britain about the middle of the eleventh century, and all over Europe by the end of the twelfth at farthest. Scotland, and the kings of Scotland, were not only known in Flanders, France, and Italy, by marriages with foreign princesses and ecclesiastic dispensations, but even in Hungary. Who can dream that a Scotus of the fourteenth century was not a native of Scotland? Paris and Cologne, which classed with Oxford among the first universities of Europe, the very shrines of learning and accuracy, could not in 1308 distinguish between a Hibernus and a Scotus! Impossible! Ridiculous!

It must be farther observed, that even when Dunse was born, surnames had become not uncommon. I have not Prynne by me, but in the roll of those of Scotland who paid a forced homage to Edward I. in 1298, there are many surnames. I believe there are even one or two Dunses. Johannes de Duns Scotus is the fixt denomination of our hero, including his sur name and nation, so that the claim of England is alike groundless. Paris, Oct. 1817.

J. P.

ON MAKING BREAD FROM WOOD.

We may admit it as an axiom in political economy, that the popula tion of a state will adapt itself to the means of subsistence. But, as the amount of these varies from the operation of a variety of circumstances, we should often be exposed to all the miseries of famine, if there were not causes compensating the natural effects of the constantly fluctuating supply of food. In years of plenty, the excessive increase of population, which should naturally follow, is checked by the waste, which arises from cheapness, and by the speculation of merchants who export the surplus, or store it to meet contingent demands. In years of scarcity, starvation is prevented by the economy in the use of food, which is the effect of its dearness, and by the same speculative spirit of merchants who now dispose of their stored surplus, and import grain and provisions from other countries. By these means the balance between the population and supply of food is preserved, in most years, without great inconvenience. But in extraordinary cases, where the quantity of food is altogether insufficient for the wants of the people, extraordinary means of supply must be resorted to, and of these the most obvious and most efficient is the using as food of articles which are at other times rejected, such as the flesh of animals not commonly eaten, the horse, rat, frog, &c. or the parts not commonly used as food, the liver, lungs, and brain of the larger animals, and the whole blood and fat; also vegetables, and parts of vegetables not in common use. Indeed, the parts of animals and vegetables consist chiefly of those elementary principles which essentially nutritious; but, beside those articles which we reject from mere prejudice, some are not eaten because they are poisonous or unwholesome, such as the poisonous fish of the West Indies, and some kinds of shell-fish, all diseased animals, and many vegetables; or because they are disgusting and disagreeable when eaten in any quantity, such as the whale, and other coarse fishes, and strong oils and fats; or because the compactness of their aggregation prevents them from being dissolved or digested in the stomach.

are

TOA. J.

Of this last description are most kinds of wood and bark, and woody fibre in general; and, as these are produced in great abundance in some countries, where food is always scarce, and in sufficient quantity in almost every country; when threatened with famine, it becomes a problem of great importance to discover the means of rendering them alimentary, at least so far as to assist in supporting the people until the danger of famine is at an end.

This has been attempted by Professor Autenrieth of Tubingen in regard to wood, and with considerable success. He considered that two circumstances chiefly rendered wood unfit for food, the foreign matters always mixed with the woody fibre, and the compact aggregation of the fibre itself. The former was to be overcome by rejecting those woods which naturally contain most foreign matter, such as the fir, on account of its resin, and the oak on account of its astringency; and by removing every thing that water can dissolve. He, therefore, preferred for his experiments those woods which have little taste or smell, and chiefly used the birch and beech, although the latter is less fit for the purpose on account of its much greater compactness.

To reader wood alimentary, it is necessary to reduce it to a state of extremely minute division, not merely into very fine fibres, but to a real powder. It also requires the repeated action of the heat of an oven, by which means it is not only better fitted for being ground, but probably also undergoes some internal change which renders it more digestible, as is evidently the case in regard to coffee. Wood prepared in this way acquires the smell and taste of corn flour. It, however, is never white, but always yellowish. It also agrees with corn flour in this, that it does not ferment without the addition of some leaven, and in this case sour leaven of corn flour is the best. With this it makes a perfectly uniform and spongy bread, like common brown bread, and when it is thoroughly baked, and has much crust, it has a much better taste of bread than what in times of scarcity is prepared of bran and husks of corn.

To make wood flour in perfection, the wood, after being thoroughly stripped of its bark, is to be sawed

allowed to stand in a warm place to risc, for a longer time than wheat flour requires; and, lastly, to be put into the oven, and baked thoroughly. Professor Autenrieth made the following experiment with this bread :He ate a quarter of a pound of it with weak coffee to breakfast. The more bread he ate the rougher it became, and somewhat constringed the throat, but was not bitter. The last bit, which, on that account, he chewed little, was unpleasant, and afterwards his stomach was oppressed, and he was convinced that the continued use of wood bread alone would have injured him. But, at mid-day, his appetite had returned, and he ate of several kinds of soup made with this flour, with some other preparations of it, without any inconvenience. In the evening he ate another quarter of a pound of the bread, with some milk. without any dislike or oppression at his stomach. He slept well, and was next morning in his usual health.

From these experiments, it is obvious, that in cases of necessity wood may be made to furnish a considerable quantity of nourishment, but it is no less obvious, that the process is so troublesome and expensive, that it never can become an article of food, except when there is an absolute scarcity of provision. On such occasions, the labour is of very secondary importance; and, at any rate, cannot be so profitably applied as in procuring the means of sustenance.

In some districts of Norway, especially in Tryssild and the mountainous part of Oesterdale, bread is made of the bark of trees, and seems to be even less palatable than bread of wood flour. Its preparation is also difficult, but proceeds upon a different principle, as its nutritious property depends entirely upon the mucilage which exists in the bark, and, therefore, the bitterness and astringency cannot be removed, as in the case of wood, by the action of water. On the other hand, as nutritious matter exists ready developed in the bark, it is not necessary to grind it so very minutely to convert an otherwise indigestible substance into nourishment. The very accurate observer, Von Buch, has given the best account of

*

* Travels through Norway and Lapland during the years 1806, 1807, and 1808.

the manner of preparing bark-bread. "When the young and vigorous firtrees are felled, to the great injury of the woods, the tree is stripped of its bark for its whole length; the outer part is carefully peeled from the bark ; the deeper interior covering is then shaved off, and nothing remains but the innermost rind, which is extremely soft and white. It is then hung up several days in the air to dry, and afterwards baked in an oven; it is next beat on wooden blocks, and then pounded as finely as possible in wooden vessels; but all this is not enough, the mass is yet to be carried to the mill and ground into coarse meal, like barley or oats. This meal is mixed up with hexel, with thrashed out ears, or with a few moss seeds and a bread of about an inch thickness is formed of this composition. Nature, with reluctance, receives the bitter and contracting food; and the boors endeavour to disguise the taste of it, by washing it down with water; but, in the beginning of the spring, after having lived on this bread a great part of winter, they become weak and relaxed, and they are incessantly tormented with an oppressive shooting and burning about the chest."-p. 87.

In

In another place, after having dcscribed the habits and diet of the "A Rein-deer Laplanders, he says, " A great part of the Swedish Laplanders in Kemi Lappmark, and especially in the Färsamling of Enare, live in quite a different manner. They live, for the most part, by fishing, and have but seldom a few rein-deer; on the other hand, they generally possess eight or ten sheep, but no cows. summer they scarcely eat any thing but fish from the fresh water lakes, and drink, with great eagerness, the water in which the fish has been boil ed. In winter they must put up with dried fish and with soups of water, fir bark, and rein-deer tallow. They peel off, in summer, the innermost bark of the fir, divide it in long strips, and hang them in their dwellings to dry for winter stores. When used, these strips of bark are minced in small pieces along with the rein-deer tallow, boiled together for several hours

By Leopold Von Buch. Translated from the original German. By John Black. 4to. London, 1813.