Mollusks.

Anodonta fluviatilis. — Dr. Jos. Leldy directed attention to a basketful of living fresh-water mussels, Anodonta fluviatilis, collected from ponds in the marl of New Jersey. He had found them on examination to be exceedingly prolific. The pregnant females have the branchial uteri, as they have been appropriately named by Dr. Isaac Lea, enormously distended with perfected embryos. These appear with a cinnamon-brown shell having a conspicuous spinous tooth or hook to each valve, and are provided with long byssal threads. Wishing to ascertain the proportionate amount of embryos, the following calculation was made: in an individual six inches long, the soft parts were weighed, and found to be 135.44 grammes. The branchial uteri weighed 64 grammes, and the inner gills 7.34 grammes. Supposing the latter to be of the same weight as the outer gills free from embryos, this weight subtracted would leave 56.66 grammes as that of the embryos, and 78.78 grammes as the weight of the rest of the animal. He estimated that there are 1,280,000 young in the branchial uteri of each animal.

The mussels were infested with many water mites creeping about among the gills, and the young of the same were found embedded in the mantle. The mite appears to be identical with the Atax ypsilophorus described one hundred years ago by Bonz, as infesting the Anodonta cygnea of Europe. It is of a dense black color, with a Y-shaped yellow mark on the back. Our Unio complanatus had been found infested with a mite which is probably the Atax Bonzi described by Claparede from European unios. If our parasitic mites are identical with those of European mussels, it not only makes it appear probable that they are of common origin, but renders it the more probable that this is likewise the case with their hosts, even if these are not regarded of the same species. (Acad. nat. sc. Philad.; meeting Feb. 13.)

Insects.

[335

Luminosity of fire-flies.- Considering the popular interest in the subject, we have very few investigations of the light-giving organs of insects; but for all this, as the latest student of their anatomy, Heinrich Ritter v. Wielowiejski, observes, there are plenty of contradictory statements.

The photogenic organs, as Huxley calls them, consist of thin whitish plates, resting on the ventral walls of the penultimate and antipenultimate abdominal rings of the abdomen, which is in these spots transparent to allow the emission of the light. In the female glow-worm there are also two small accessory light-organs in the last ring. These photogenic plates are composed of 'parenchymal cells,' richly supplied with nerves and tracheae. The upper and lower strata of the plates, considered as distinct by former authors, really differ only in the nature of the contents of the parenchymal cells above and below. These cells are morphological equivalents of the 'fat-body' (as maintained by Leydig), and physiologically are glandular. The production of light results from the slow oxidization of materials formed, under control of the nervous system, by the parenchymal cells. The light may continue to shine long after the death of the cells, and therefore is not a property of the living protoplasm as such.

The stellate terminal tracheal cells' discovered by Schultze have no connection with the production of light, nor are they the ends of tracheae. They belong, in fact, to the matrix, or peritoneal sheath, of the tracheae, which is spread out about the point where the fine tracheae branch into still finer 'tracheal cap

illaries,' which latter want the spiral threads of the tracheal stems. The 'capillaries' seldom end blindly, but anastomose with each other into a sort of network. They do not penetrate into the parenchymal cells, but seem to run over their surface, twining irregularly around them on all sides. Some (or all ?) of the parenchymal cells are connected with fine nervelets.

The most useful reagent for the study of the lightorgans was a solution of osmic acid (from 1 to 0.1 per cent) in which the living insects were immersed, and later transferred to alcohol, or to a mixture of alcohol, glycerine, and water.

The eggs were found not to shine by their own light, but as stated by Newport, though he has been contradicted by Owsjannikow, are sometimes rendered luminous by an accidental coating of the luminous substance of the light-giving organs, which might easily be ruptured by the pressure of the masses of eggs contained in the abdomen of a gravid female.

While the luminosity of the adult fire-flies is evidently useful in bringing the sexes together, it remains to explain the luminosity of the larvae and pupae, which are thus of course made conspicuous to the eyes of insectivorous birds and other animals. Von Wielowiejski suggests that their bite, already known to be poisonous to the snails on which the young fire-flies feed, is to some extent poisonous to the enemies of the latter. If this is the case, or if, as it may be suggested, they are disagreeable to the taste, the light would of course serve as a dangersignal to protect its givers from attack.

The author finally calls attention to larval or embryonic characteristics found in adult Lampyridae. Besides the well-known larval form of the adult female glow-worm, the terminal tracheal cells' are embryonic structures. There is also the occasional occurrence, on the muscular fibres, of remains of the embryonic formative cells, and the presence of the large free cells in the body cavity.

The paper appears to be the result of careful and reliable study, and, if somewhat diffuse, is still a most valuable contribution to our knowledge of a difficult subject: it contains, besides the points already mentioned, a number of observations on the fat-body, nervous system, cuticula, etc. - (Zeitschr. wiss. zool., xxxvii. 354.) E. B. [336

VERTEBRATES.

Integumentary appendages. — Mr. J. A. Jeffries spoke of the structure of these parts in birds, and compared these with each other and the appendages of other vertebrate groups. Having stated that the same layers of the epiderm could be found in the development of all the appendages, and that many of the layers seemed to be the result of physiological conditions rather than of morphological value, he passed to a comparison of the appendages.

Feathers differ from the scutae of the tarsus in that the internal surface of the mucous layer becomes exposed to the air; they arise as hemispherical knobs, not as folds; they may grow upon the scutae; and the final structures are totally distinct. The supposed scale-like nature of penguin-feathers has, moreover, been proved to be a fallacy.

Scutae are separated from the scales of reptiles, with which they have have been assumed a priori to be homologous, in that they arise as folds; they have not the complex structure of scales, they shade into the papillae of the plantar surface of the toes, and they may bear feathers. Finally, any point of resemblance between feathers and scales also exists between the two, and the folds on the tail of the rat or opos

sum; in fact, there is very little difference between the first and the last; yet one would hesitate to call the folds on the opossum's tail scales.

The claws are shown by their positions, structure, and development to be homologous with those of other vertebrates. Wattles, spurs, and the bill seem to be special formations.

Mr. Jeffries finally stated that he had been unable to find any resemblance between the papillae in the mouth and feathers; the papillae being comparable with those of other vertebrates, and the jelliform structure found in the ducks being due to a lack of development of certain epithelial cells. (Bost. soc. nat. hist.; meeting Feb. 7.)

[337

Motor disturbances following lesions of the internal ear.-Operative difficulties have hitherto prevented any extended series of experiments on mammalia in this connection. Vulpian has lately employed the method of injecting irritating liquids into the external auditory meatus of rabbits. A few drops of a 25 per cent solution of chloral hydrate in water, when injected, cause motor disturbances within fifteen minutes; these become more pronounced, and next day attain a maximum; the limbs are moved with uncertainty in locomotion, and the animal frequently falls; the head is twisted on the spinal column so that the cheek of the side on which the injection was made is turned upwards; there are circus movements towards the side of the operation; the animal rolls over and over around its longitudinal axis; there is nystagmus; and also the muscles of the two eyeballs cease to be co-ordinated in their action, so that one eye is turned upward and the other towards the ground. Post-mortem examination showed no lesion in the brain cavity, but destruction of the labyrinth so extensive that no statement as to any specific connection of any one part of the internal ear with the motor disturbances could be made. The phenomena are much less marked when dogs are substituted for rabbits. (Comptes rendus, cxvi. 1883, 90.) H. N. M. [338

Reptiles.

The carpal bones of Dinocerata. — During a communication on the tarsus and carpus of the Dinocerata, Mr. Jacob L. Wortman referred to Prof. Marsh's statement, that the scaphoides in the proximal row of the carpus is supported below by the trapezium and trapezoides, and that it does not touch the magnum. In the figure of the anterior foot, however, which Prof. Marsh published with this description, he makes the scaphoides to articulate with the magnum, although stating directly to the contrary. The speaker had recently made a careful study of the remains of Uintatherium, belonging to Princeton college, and had found that the scaphoides does touch the magnum; thereby establishing the fact that Prof. Marsh's figure is right, although his description is wrong. The carpal bones, therefore, of the proximal and distal rows form distinct interlocking series; indicating that the Dinocerata can no longer remain as a sub-order of the Amblypoda, but must be placed in the Diplarthra of Cope, which includes the Artiodactyla and Perissodactyla, and corresponds with the Ungulata of authors. (Acad. nat. sc. Philad.; meeting Feb. 20.) [339

India, are a woolly-haired black race, like the negrittos of Malacca and the Philippines. Mr. E. H. Man, who has lived among them, has been giving to the British anthropological society a series of sketches concerning them, the last of which appeared in a late number of the journal. Many precious facts respecting their language are presented. For instance, they coin native compounds for new ideas : as, ârla, daily, and ik-ya'b, repetition, for prayer. They have a poetic dialect that subordinates to rhythm the forms of words, and even sentential structure. A very elaborate system of possessive pronominals is in use. There are, of these, three principal classes: 1, for nouns denoting human objects; 2, for names of parts of the body; 3, nouns of relationship. Again, No. 2, has seven subclasses: I. Used with names for head, brain, neck, chest, heart, etc. II. With hand and foot, and their parts. III. With shoulder, arm, breast, face, temple, etc. IV. With body, back, thigh, calf, elbow, stomach, liver, etc. V. With leg, hip, loin, bladder, etc. VI. With mouth, chin, lip, throat, etc. VII. Only with waist. Class 3 has eight subdivisions.

The word-construction is both prepositional and postpositional; so much so that the two forms interfere with each other's grammatic function.

Owing to a singular practice of adoption, it is rare to see a child above six or seven years residing with its parents. It is considered a compliment for a married man, after a visit, to ask his host for one of his children. Indeed, the soi-disant father, may, on a similar occasion, pass the child on farther, without referring to the real parent. To prevent improper flirtations among the lads and lassies, they paint the suspected parties, one red, the other white: of course they cannot mutually embrace without partially exchanging color. Marriage is forbidden among near relatives. Relationships are traced in both lines, and the system with reference to either sex is identical; but the record fails after three generations.

Children are named before they are born, after some friend of the parent; there being no distinction of sex in these titles. As they grow up, a male or female affix is applied. At puberty the females receive the flower' name, after a plant blooming in the month when that takes place. The young men receive an epithet name. Between the eleventh and the thirteenth years commences the initiatory abstinence from turtle, honey, pork, fish, and other choses défendues; which lasts for a period of years, and is broken at last with great ceremony and rejoicing. Mr. Man takes occasion to correct a great many marvellous stories about the unchastity and inconstancy of the Andainanese, and paints a very pretty picture of their simplicity and fidelity in matrimonial matters. The marriage-ceremony is described in charming style.

Much ceremony is practised in the burial of the dead; infants being deposited under the hearth of the hut where they died, and adults upon a 'machan,' or platform, in the jungle, or in a grave. Temporary migrations in either case follow death, in order to allow the spirit of the deceased full range around the old haunts. After a proper time the dead are exhumed, their bones cleaned and made into jewelry and mementos. The belief in spirits is evident from the ceremonies accompanying interments.

Friends, at meeting, stare at each other until the younger speaks; relatives embrace, and howl hideously. For each particular kind of meeting there is a special form of salutation, in which tears form the chief ingredient.

Fire-making is unknown; but the modes of pre

serving the fire furnished by the active volcano of one of the islands are very ingenious. Many misstatements have been made concerning their former ignorance of fire.

The closing part of Mr. Man's paper, relating to superstitions, beliefs, and mythology, furnishes a tempting field for the prolongation of this notice; but the want of space forbids. - (Journ. anthrop. inst. Gr. Br., xii. 117.)

[340 The Papuans and the Polynesians. - Students of ethnology are astonished and perplexed at the occurrence of a patch of mop-headed blacks occurring in the oceanic area that extends south-easterly from New Guinea to Fiji, and various have been the attempts to classify them. Mr. A. H. Keane has elaborated a scheme of all the oceanic peoples in the ethnologic appendix to Stanford's Compendium for Australasia. To this arrangement Mr. C. Staniland Wake takes exception, in a paper read before the London anthropological institute, which called forth a sharp rejoinder from Mr. Keane. Mr. Wake's own views may be briefly stated:

1. The Eastern Archipelago was early inhabited by a straight-haired Caucasian race, represented by the Australians. 2. To this race belonged also ancestors of the Papuans, Micronesians, Tasmanians, and Polynesians. 3. The special peculiarities of the dark races are due to foreign elements, the Negritos having influenced them all in varying degrees. 4. The lighter races show Negrito influence, but they have been intermixed with Asiatic peoples, giving rise to the Malay and the Polynesians. 5. Traces of an Arab or Semitic element appear among all, but chiefly among the Papuans and Melanesians, the former of whom may also possess a Hindoo admixture. (Journ. anthrop. inst., xii. 197.) [341

Pebbles resembling artificial objects. - Dr. Jos. Leidy called attention to a collection of large pebbles, which illustrated how closely certain natural forms may sometimes resemble works of primitive manufacture. The pebbles have the general shape of human feet, and might readily be supposed to have been used as lasts upon which the moccasins or sandals of prehistoric man were shaped. (Acad. nat. sc. Philad.; meeting Feb. 5.) [342

PSYCHOLOGY.

Apparent size of magnified objects. - A paper (to appear elsewhere) was read by Prof. W. H. Brewer, in which he gave the results of several hundred estimates by as many different observers chosen from different classes of people, of a common insect as seen magnified by a microscope. These estimates were found to vary from a fraction of an inch to several feet, the actual apparent size at ten inches being a little over four inches. (Conn. acad. arts sc.; meeting, Dec. 20.)

[343

Experiments in binary arithmetic. - Simple addition involves several distinct but nearly simulta

neous mental operations, and a capital of more than fifty propositions committed to memory. The object of the experiments by the author of the paper, Mr. Henry Farquhar, was to test the possibility of diminishing the mental strain, and consequent liability to error, by the use of numbers expressed in powers of 2, the mental work being reduced to counting similar marks and halving their sums. Columns of numbers of six or eight figures each were written with the ordinary, and with various forms of binary, notation; and comparative additions were made. To avoid confusion of columns it was found best to give different shapes to the marks denoting neighboring powers of 2; and, for brevity of expression, two or more of them were combined in one written figure. About seventy combinations were tried, with various results. With the best combination, addition required only three-fourths the time taken with ordinary figures; and this was reduced to one-half when the binary notation was taught to a person unskilled in arithmetic.

The only natural division is by bisections; hence the superior convenience of a binary scale of weights; and hence another reason for endeavoring to introduce a binary arithmetic.

In the discussion which followed, Mr. William B. Taylor said the world was losing so much by the use of the denary arithmetic, that even a single generation might find economy in substituting the octonary. The paper had especial value in that it proved the ability of binary arithmetic to compete with the established system in rapidity of computation. - (Phil. soc. Wash.; meeting Jan. 13.) [344

Varying the thermal background of reflex perception. The background of conscious perception, physiologically speaking, is defined by W. T. Sedgwick as "that standard (usually unconsciously held) with which we compare any stimulus which awakens consciousness." We perceive difference of relative intensity between a specific stimulus and its background. The latter may vary so that a stimulus which will to-day cause consciousness or motion will not do so to-morrow. Instead of studying the reflex background by means of inhibitions, the author varies the background as a whole thermally, and observes its effect on reflexes. A reflex or headless frog may be heated so slowly, that, although the heart may beat very fast, rigor caloris may be caused without any motor re-action of its limbs. If the heart be tied beforehand, reflexes occur from gradual heating.

This the author thinks explained by assuming, that, in the first case, the hot blood passing inward equalizes the progressive heating throughout, or changes the thermal background; while in the second case, with no circulation, the background is fixed, and the surface temperature rises to the point of difference which causes movement. (Johns Hopk. univ. circ., Feb., 1883.) G. S. H. [345

building is completed, the number of persons entering the doors will undoubtedly be the same as the number entering the museum building. The average daily attendance upon the museum at present is about 1,200.

Fisheries exhibit. A preliminary display of the fisheries exhibit to be sent to London took place in the halls of the museum on the evenings of the 26th and 27th insts. About five thousand invitations were distributed by the commissioner of fisheries for the first evening, and were universally responded to. On the second occasion the general public was admitted without reserve. The exhibit may be pronounced remarkably comprehensive in scope, and complete in detail. The mounting of the various objects has been done in a very careful and artistic manner. Packing will begin at once.

Geological survey.

Division of mining statistics and technology. - According to an act of Congress passed at the last session, the survey is charged with the duty of collecting and publishing statistics of the mineral industries of the country (other than gold and silver mining). The plan also includes technical discussions and industrial notes; the general aim being to furnish matter of a practical character, thus correlating the purely geological work of the survey. The reports are to be issued as semi-annual bulletins, in octavo, the first of the series bearing date of July 1, 1883.

The scope of this work embraces a wide range of topics, among which are coal, iron, petroleum, copper, lead, zinc, quicksilver, nickel, tin, manganese, antimony, bismuth, salt, graphite, phosphates, barytes, asbestos, borax, gypsum, sulphur, mica, felspar, and many other substances; together with lists of localities of the useful minerals, statistics of mine accidents, etc.

Although mining statistics have been for many years published as government reports in Great Britain, France, Belgium, Holland, Russia, Germany, Austria, Sweden and Norway, Victoria, New South Wales, Queensland, Nova Scotia, and other countries and colonies, the United States have been hitherto without accounts of their mineral products, excepting such as are included in the reports of mining commissioners for the precious metals, state mineralogists, state geological surveys, and in census returns and the commercial reports of the bureau of statistics. While much creditable work has been done, and valuable information imparted, in a desultory way, both have been limited by local restrictions, or have wanted continuity. The general government has never before attempted systematic effort in this direction.

Bureau of ethnology.

Explorations of the pueblos of Tusayan. - During the earlier part of the past field-season, one of the parties of the bureau, under the charge of Mr. Victor Mersdeleff, has been at work among the pueblos of the ancient province of Tusayan, making such measurements, drawings, and plans, as will enable him to prepare models of the seven Moqui towns, on a scale sufficiently large to exhibit not only the architectural details of the villages themselves, but also the essential features of the high, precipitous mesas upon which they stand.

The party first visited the towns of Té-wa, Sechum-o-vi, and Wol-pi, all built, in the order named, on one mesa promontory.

It is an interesting fact that the inhabitants of Té-wa, although in such close proximity to the other towns, have preserved their own customs and insti

tutions in many respects entirely distinct from their neighbors. They manufacture a certain quality of undecorated pottery, which is not found at any other of the Moqui towns. It will be well represented in the collections from this region.

Wol-pi is remarkable for the position it occupies on the extreme point of the mesa peninsula, the neck connecting it with the main body of the mesa being not more than twelve feet wide. It is the largest of the three villages; and the small, rocky promontory on which it is built is well crowded with clusters of dwellings. In many cases, a back wall is built within a few inches of the edge of the vertical precipice; and the weathering and undermining of the rock has, in some instances, disturbed the foundations of the homes, compelling their abandonment. The trails from these villages to the plains below are very steep and rugged, in some cases descending by means of rude steps in crevices between the rocky wall of the mesa, and detached slabs of rock that have fallen from above.

The next field studied was the town of O-rai-be, which is by far the largest of the entire group, and the most isolated, maintaining very little intercourse with strangers. This pueblo is arranged with much regularity, considering the extent of ground it covers. The vast, irregular, hive-like cluster of houses usually seen in other pueblos is not found here. The buildings are arranged approximately in rows, and never exceed four stories in height. The fact that several additions to houses were being built during our short stay would seem to indicate that these people are increasing.

The three towns of the 'middle mesa' were the last group visited. Two of them-Me-shong-i-ni-vi and Shi-pau-a-lu-vi — are quite close together; while Shong-a-pa-vi, the third, is on a spur of the same mesa, three miles to the westward. The latter is the most regularly planned of all the towns. Entrance from the roof-a conspicuous feature in the architecture of more exposed pueblos - is here found only on the first mesa, and then only occasionally, many houses being unprovided with them. The natural inaccessibility of these villages would seem to render this precaution unnecessary. It is a noteworthy fact, that, in almost every instance, the terraced side of the houses, with all the doors and windows, face eastward; the back of each row usually being a vertical wall without receding stories, and with very few openings. Even when parallel rows occur, they occupy the position stated above, instead of being built facing each other.

Incidentally to the work among these pueblos, the party visited and surveyed the ruins of a very extensive ancient pueblo, situated ten miles east of the first Moqui mesa, and known by the Navajo name of 'Talla Hogan.' From the data collected, models can be made which will be accurate as to the relative position and size of minor features; such as doors, chimneys, ladders, etc.

Upon the completion of the surveying-work, Mr. Frank H. Cushing joined the party, and a collecting expedition was organized to work among these Indians. In addition to a very full and complete collection of the modern pottery, baskets, and danceparaphernalia, there were secured many pieces of ancient ware of rare form and decoration, and in a perfect state of preservation. The Moquis stated that some of these had been dug up on the sites of ancient pueblos; and, indeed, many of them bear evidence of recent exhumation. A few, however, seemed to be considered as heirlooms. Some of the villages appear to entertain reverence for certain ruin

sites, so much so, that the prospect of gain cannot induce them to collect any of their ancient remains, or to reveal the location of these ruins to the white man. Other ruins they explore as thoroughly as their rude means will permit, without any compunction.

Stone implements, and stone images of animals, used as fetiches, were also collected. Many specimens of basket-ware - some of types not made by the present pueblos were secured. The art of basket-making flourishes best among the O-rai-bes, who exchange their products for the pottery of the other villages. Most of these are made in the form of flat, circular trays, of two styles of manufacture, one a wooden variety, very light, made by the people of O-rai-be only; the other type, coiled spirally, and much stronger and heavier, is made by both the O-rai-bes, and the inhabitants of the villages on the middle mesa.

A large number of brightly decorated wooden images-representations of gods presiding over various dances were collected. Some of these had been deposited at a sacrificial shrine that was discovered in the vicinity of Me-shong-i-ni-vi.

PUBLIC AND PRIVATE INSTITUTIONS.

State university of Kansas, Lawrence.

Weather report for February. Although the lowest temperature of this month was one degree lower than any previous February minimum of our sixteenyears' record, its mean temperature was not so low as in 1874, 1875, and 1881. The mean height of the barometer exceeded every previous monthly mean. The rainfall was nearly double the average; and this is but the third month in the past year in which the rainfall has reached the average. The cloudiness and humidity were much above the average, while the wind-velocity and depth of snow were normal. Before the ice 'broke up' in the Kansas river in the middle of the month, it had reached a thickness of twenty inches.

Mean temperature, 27.920, which is 5.64° below the average February temperature of the fifteen preceding years. The highest temperature was 67°, on the 28th; the lowest was 13° below zero, on the 4th; monthly range, 80°. The mercury fell below zero on three days. Mean temperature at 7 A.M., 21.34°; at 2 P.M., 34.44°; at 9 P.M., 27.96°.

The winter now closing, although cold, has been less severe than the winters of 1872-73, 1874-75, and 1880-81.

Rainfall, including melted snow, 2.31 inches, which is 1.05 inches above the February average. Rain or snow, or both, fell on ten days, on one of which the quantity was too small to measure. The depth of snow was 4 inches. The entire depth of snow for the winter has been 144 inches. There was one thunder-shower, with sleet, on the 3d.

Mean cloudiness, 51.67 % of the sky, the month being 5.98% cloudier than the average. Number of clear days (less than one-third cloudy), 12; entirely clear, 3; half-clear (from one to two thirds cloudy), 5; cloudy (more than two-thirds), 11; entirely cloudy, 7; mean cloudiness, — at 7 A.M., 55.36 %; at 2 P.M., 55.71%; at 9 P.M., 43.93 %.

Wind, N. W. 29 times, S. W. 26 times, N.E. 24 times, S. E. twice, S. once, N. once, E. once. The entire distance travelled by the wind was 10,593 miles, which gives a mean daily velocity of 378 miles, and a mean hourly velocity of 15.76 miles. The highest velocity was 50 miles an hour, on the 24th.

Mean height of barometer, 29.340 inches; at 7 A.M., 29.340; at 2 P.M., 29.332; at 9 P.M., 29.348;