have witnessed a treatment of queens as little gallant and generous as that of the Parisian mob. He might remind Mr. Burke, that in the age and country of Sir Philip Sidney, a Queen of France, whom no blindness to accomplishment, no malignity of detraction could reduce to the level of Maria Antoinetta, was, by 'a nation of men of honor and cavaliers,' permitted to languish in captivity and expire on a scaffold; and he might add, that the manners of a country are more surely indicated by the systematic cruelty of a sovereign, than by the licentious frenzy of a mob.”Mackintosh, Vindicia Gallica, ed. of 1791, p. 195.

161: 15.-Sophisters, etc. Undoubtedly an allusion to the younger Pitt.

164: 3.-Non satis est.

167: 30.-Terror and pity. See Aristotle's Poetics, vi. 2. 168: 7.-Garrick. David Garrick (1717-79), the noted actor, friend of Johnson and Burke.

168: 7.— Siddons. Mrs. Sarah Kemble Siddons (1755–1831). In 1788 she had played Queen Katharine in her brother John Kemble's revival of Henry VIII. It is possibly to this rôle that Burke refers.

168: 18.-Machiavellian.

Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527), the Italian statesman and author, had in his Prince commented upon the arts by which power may be won and held. The pernicious doctrines treated of in the book have gradually come to be associated with the author himself.

CHURCH AND STATE.

After the passage last quoted, Burke goes on to show that there is no real sympathy in England for the Revolutionists.

The English are conservative, clinging to their inherited prejudices, maintaining their reverence for religion and law. A true picture of the English political system must begin with a sketch of the Church Establishment.

171: 18.-Collective sovereignty. In a democratic government. 171: 29.—Janissaries. A corps of Turkish soldiers, originally intended as a bodyguard for the sovereign.

171: 31.-Sold by the soldiers. The reference is to the action of the French guards in going over to the side of the people in July, 1789. The question of pay, however, seems to have had nothing to do with their conduct.

172: 13.-Perfect democracy. Compare Plato's Republic, bk. viii., and Bryce's American Commonwealth, part v. cvii. and cviii. (1895 ed.).

176: 5.-Aged parent. An allusion to the legend that the daughters of Pelias, King of Thessaly, cut their father to pieces and boiled him, having been told by Medea that by so doing they would restore him to youthful vigor.

178: 5. Quod illi. "That to the great and all powerful God who rules this universe nothing of the things done upon earth is more pleasing than the unions and gatherings of men, bound together by law, which are called states."--From the Dream of Scipio, Cicero's De Republica, bk. vi.

178: 10.-Great name. Scipio; "the greater" is Cicero. 182: 32.-Euripus. The straits between Euboea and Boeotia, where the currents are famous for their sudden changes. 182: 32.-Actions. Shares in a joint stock company. 186: 10.-Archbishop precede a duke. To this passage Thomas Paine makes the following characteristic rejoinder: "As to the first part, whether the archbishop precedes the duke, or the duke the bishop, it is, I believe, to the people in general, somewhat like Sternhold and Hopkins, or Hopkins and Sternhold; you may put which you please first; and as I confess I do not understand the merits of this case, I will not contend it with Mr. Burke. But with respect to the latter [clause], I have something to say. Mr. Burke has not put the case right. The comparison is out of order, by being put between the bishop and the earl or the squire. It ought to be put between the bishop and the curate, and then

it will stand thus: The people of England can see without pain or grudging, a bishop of Durham, or a bishop of Winchester, in possession of ten thousand pounds a-year and a curate on thirty or forty pounds a year or less. No, sir, they certainly do not see those things without great pain or grudging. It is a case that applies itself to every man's sense of justice, and is one among many that calls aloud for a constitution."-Rights of Man, p. 76.

CONSERVATIVE REFORM.

After a full discussion of the confiscation of church property in France, with incidental comments upon the French monarchy and nobility, Burke passes to the second main division of his theme, a criticism of the policy of the National Assembly. The Assembly has evaded difficulties, Burke claims, by simply destroying everything, and setting up something new; true statesmanship, on the other hand, consists in the adaptation of old institutions to new circumstances.

190: 6.-Quadrimanous. Monkey-like, mischievous.

190: 7.-Eloquent writers. Rousseau, who in his famous prize essay (1749) upon Whether the Progress of the Sciences and of Letters has Tended to Corrupt or to Elevate Morals, had taken the ground that the influences of civilization are corrupting. Though he took this side, as he told Diderot, to show his skill in defending a paradoxical position, he wrote with genuine ardor. Much of the action of the National Assembly at this time would not have met with Rousseau's approval. See Burke's Letter to a Member of the National Assembly (1791).

190: 15.-Cicero. In the preface to the Paradoxa and in the oration Pro Muraena, sect. 29.

190: 21.-Pede nudo.

Horace, Epistles, i. 19, says:

"What if a man appeared with gown cut short,

Bare feet, grim visage, after Cato's sort ?

Would you respect him, hail him from henceforth,
The heir of Cato's mind, of Cato's worth?'

I. e., a man is not necessarily as austere and self-denying as
Cato simply because, like Cato, he walks barefoot.

What Burke

means is that Cato accepted paradoxes as serious truths, and

attempted to act upon them. His imitators were as foolish as those who put into practice the paradoxes of Rousseau.”—Selby.

190: 21. Mr. Hume. How far Rousseau was serious in the conversation alluded to may perhaps be questioned.

FUTURE OF THE ARMY.

In the concluding paragraph of the passage on Conservative Reform, Burke outlines the remaining topics to be treated in his essay. They are the constitution of the legislature; of the judicature; the army; and the system of finance. The value of these detailed criticisms is impaired by some blunders as to matters of fact, yet considering that Burke wrote in 1790, when the drama of the Revolution had developed scarcely beyond its opening act, his forecasts were singularly accurate. The following sketch of the future of the army, and of the process by which a one-man power like Napoleon's was sure to be established, reads to-day not so much like prophecy as history.

191: 18.—Armed municipalities. Burke has just been quoting a complaint of M. de la Tour du Pin, the Minister of War, to the National Assembly, that the municipalities in various parts of France had taken it upon themselves to interfere with military discipline; "in a word, to enslave the troops to the caprice of each of the cities or even market towns through which they are to pass." See Stephens, i. chap. xiii., and Carlyle, vol. ii. bk. ii. 195: 22.-Pleaders. Burke objected particularly to the number of lawyers found in the National Assembly.

195: 28.-Popular general. 'A similar prediction was made by Schiller, who thought that some popular general of the Republic would make himself master not only of France, but of a great part of Europe. It was accurately fulfilled in Bonaparte."-Payne.

FIAT MONEY.

In an able, although in some details a prejudiced, account of the new financial system, Burke touches upon the national credit of France, and justly ridicules the popular faith in a paper currency (assignats) based on the security of the confiscated church

lands (and afterward of all the national domains). Assignats were issued to the amount of over forty-five billion francs, and before they were withdrawn they deteriorated to less than one threehundredth of their face value. See Stephens, i. xii. 198: 2.-Mais si, etc. "From the comical interlude in Molière's Malade Imaginaire, in which the examination of a Bachelor for the doctor's degree is conducted in dog Latin. The candidate has already given the famous answer to the question 'Quare opium facit dormire?' 'Quia est in eo virtus dormitiva,' On being interrogated as to the remedy for several diseases in succession, he makes the same answer :

etc.

The following are the closing paragraphs of the Reflections. 198: 14.-All-atoning. "Assumed a patriot's all-atoning name."-Dryden, Absalom and Achitophel.

198: 27.—Lucan. The Roman poet (39–65 A. D.), author of the Pharsalia (quoted in “Sixth of October" extract), an epic on the Civil War between Cesar and Pompey. Payne notes that on account of Lucan's defense of tyrannicide (bk. vii.) his works were excluded from the Delphin (" for the Dauphin ") edition of the classics.

198: 27.—Corneille. The French dramatist (1606–84); see his Cinna in particular.

199: 29.-Moderation. The fall of the Girondist party is a case in point.

200: 21, 22.-. -States

orders. See Stephens, i. chap ii.

200 30.-British Constitution. "The continual use of the word Constitution in the English Parliament, shows there is none; and that the whole is merely a form of government without a Constitution, and constituting itself with what powers it pleases. If there were a Constitution, it certainly could be referred to; and the debate on any constitutional point would terminate by pro ducing the Constitution. One member says, This is Constitution;