stop here, and if you would see the fortress converted into the modern palace under the moulding influence of the Elizabethan renaissance you need but to look at Vanderbilt Hall on the Yale Campus.

The use of the horse for industrial purposes is of comparatively recent date, but he has played a great rôle in the history of war. At first they did not dare to mount him and we come upon him first hitched to the war chariot. It is very seldom that he does any agricultural work, for oxen were kept for draft and asses for beasts of burden. The only mention of the horse in the Vedas or in Homer is in connection with a chariot. On the Assyrian bas-reliefs the horse is pictured only in war and the chase. The Bible lends its authority: "And Solomon had 40,000 stalls of horses for his chariots and 12,000 horsemen." "But of the Children of Israel did Soloman make no bondmen, but they were men of war, and his servants and his princes and his captains and rulers of his chariots and his horsemen." In Egypt the same is true. Chalas says, "It is necessary to notice that none of the monuments examined since the attention of savants has been directed to Egypt has furnished a representation of tillage done by a horse. The only bas-relief illustrating this usage is a stone which escaped the general destruction of a monument scattered about long ago and employed as ashler in a modern edifice." The Pharaohs attached great importance to the possession of numerous horses, which they had bred and trained on the royal domains. The functionary "Chief of the Horses of the King" was very high in the hierarchy and often a son of the king. In the Middle Ages the average horse was a most forlorn object and worth but a small price, while the war charger was an entirely different creature and brought fabulous sums. The best breeds of the present have been obtained by crossing the Arabian horse with this medieval charger. Thus from being an animal used exclusively for war, the horse has become almost indispensable for the purposes of industry and agriculture.

In countries where the horse is not known and oxen used for draft purposes the attachment of the load is to the horns, but when the horse comes in and this is out of the question, the

utility of the collar or breast-plate is seen, and the yoke replaces the cord or stick about the horns. A splendid proof of this is shown by the Egyptian monuments. It is the opinion of Maspero and Retzius and I suppose no longer a question of conjecture, that the horse was introduced into Egypt by the Hyksos kings. In the paintings from the mastabas at Thebes, from the tomb of Ti, and some of the cave-like passages at Beni Hassan, we see oxen drawing their loads from the horns. But from the paintings in the tombs of the great kings at Luxor who reigned after the expulsion of the Hyksos rulers, the yoke has replaced the earlier method. But there are two cases of survival to which I attach even greater weight. (1) In the relig ious and ceremonial processionals the draft is from the horns as of old. This is in keeping with the often observed fact that in religious observances the archaic form is preserved. (2) When the horse is hitched to the war chariot we see projecting from the top of the saddle or collar two brass ornaments, which are the almost exact reproduction of the horns of the Egyptian ox which is pictured in field work and sacrifices, both as to the size and shape of the horns. I take this to be a phenomenon exactly like one we can see to-day. The incandescent light is attached to fixtures almost exactly like those used for gas, and in churches we can sometimes see the gas flame coming from an imitation candle.

If a nation is to be successful in war, it must be possible to send troops immediately to any distant point of the territory with all possible haste. This demands good roads, and we are not surprised to find the best roads in the country are the military ways. In France the finest highways are the national roads built and maintained by the government for the purpose of moving troops and supplies with the greatest possible ease. The Romans had a complete system of the best roads ever built leading to all parts of their vast empire. Spencer compares them to the arteries of the bodily system. The ancient Peruvians had royal roads for conveying troops. In Ashantee there are eight broad, straight roads radiating from the capital to the distant parts of the kingdom. In Dahomey the roads are generally crooked foot paths, yet the royal roads to the coast,

"except in a few places, are good enough for wheeled vehicles, and the road six or seven miles long separating the two capitals may compare with the broadest in England." These are enough to show the influence of war in this field. I imagine the Russian Siberian railway, now nearly completed, would never have been built for purely industrial ends. The Persians cut a canal around Mount Athos, and the Suez Canal seems to be a source of considerable ill feeling among the powers who need it for the purpose of quickly sending warships to their Eastern possessions.

Greek fire was in general use for purposes of war in the 14th century. It was then replaced by gunpowder, and was so completely given up that even the receipt for it was lost. Later experiments were made to see if it could not be rediscovered and used as a fulminate for firing guns. In the course of these attempts they stumbled upon the friction match.

The discovery of gunpowder is generally ascribed to Roger Bacon, a monk, and dates from the middle of the 13th century. He was an alchemist, and in the sixth chapter of the Epistles of the Secrets of Arts we find the following: "For sounds like thunder and flashes like lightning may be made in the air, and they may be rendered far more horrible than those of nature herself. A small quantity of matter properly manufactured and not larger than the human thumb may be made to produce a horrible noise, and this may be done many ways by which a city or an army may be destroyed." Thus in the moment

of its discovery we see its application to war was foreseen, but no thought was given to its uses for industry. Yet without its aid in working mines and quarries the arts would never have reached the point at which they are to-day.

In 1846 gun cotton was accidentally discovered, but little was done with it until an Austrian officer, Capt. Van Lenk, succeeded in producing a superior article. In 1853 the Austrian government bought the patents for use in making explosives. The Scientific American had an article in it which ran as follows: "The time has arrived for private enterprise to take hold of gun cotton. The processes and machinery for its

manufacture can be greatly simplified and improved and its sphere of usefulness much increased."

Up to the 16th century siege pieces were set up on scaffolding and their operation, executed by means of capstans, often with the aid of horses and oxen, was effected with so much trouble, that they were seldom fired more than once a day. It is recorded in the Chronicle of Metz that in 1437 a cannonier who could fire his piece three times a day was accused of magic art and was sent to Rome for absolution. Machiavelli asserts that in his day a cannon could be fired no more than twice in one battle. In 1546 the 100 cannon of the army of the league fired during a combat of nine hours 750 shots, which means a space of 14 hours between shots. Compare this picture with the Maxim rapid-firing and disappearing guns of the present, and some idea can be had of the great amount of inventive skill that has been put upon these engines of war. The finest work in tubular boring in the world is done upon cannon where absolute accuracy is demanded, and a variation of a hundredth of an inch means a considerable deviation in long range shooting.

When the first monitor was built during the War of the Rebellion it was seen that the vessel must be finished in the shortest possible space of time if great injury to property would be avoided. They found trouble in drilling the holes in the armor that it might be attached to the backing. At length one of the workman discovered a process by which the holes could be drilled in one-fourth of the time, and that method is employed to-day for bridge and building construction.

Major Flood Page, in a recent lecture before the London Chamber of Commerce, said that great attention was being paid to automotives by the military authorities and it was thought the movement of field artillery would be revolutionized. If this could successfully be applied to field artillery, there should be no trouble in turning it to advantage in heavy trucking. If the experiments in the war department are successful, they will confer a great benefit on industry.

Though war has played a great part in the development of industry in the past, it may be that its rôle is finished. Such

seems to be the opinion of Herbert Spencer. I shall close by quoting a sentence from his "Sociology": "Though from early days when flint arrow heads were chipped and clubs carved, down to present days when armor plates a foot thick are rolled, the needs of offence and defence have urged on invention and mechanical skill; yet in our own generation steam hammers, hydraulic rams, and multitudinous new appliances, from locomotives to telephones, prove that industrial needs alone have come to furnish abundant pressure whereby, hereafter, the industrial arts will be still further developed."

Yale University.

WILLIAM B. BAILEY.