affairs of the city. It cannot be supposed that Crescentius, whatever may have been the views of the subtle Greek Pope, had any serious designs of withdrawing Rome from its position as head of the Western Empire, or of restoring it to its dependence on the despised East. But in his desperation he caught at any alliance, and that alliance with the East was interpreted by the jealousy of the Germans as a deliberate transference of his allegiance. History, in truth, is always seeking for policy, when passions (as is so often the case) are the ruling motives of men. And the ambition of Crescentius was a passion, rather than a calm and heroic aim; it was not content with the temporal power, under the subordinate title of patrician or consul; the assertor of the liberties of Rome (an extant medal confirms the statement of one, though but of one historian) himself assumed the empire. But the new Emperor or Consul, and the Pope, to whom all agree in ascribing fox-like cunning, had strangely miscalculated their strength. No sooner was Otho released from the Sclavonian war in which he was engaged, than he appeared in Italy m at the head of an overwhelming force of Germans and Italians; Italy was prostrate before him. He reached Rome, he entered Rome without the least resistance. Pope John made his escape, but was taken and brought back. The most horrible punishment was inflicted on the traitor to præcipuè Crescentii cujusdam prædivitis Apostolicam sedem jam violenter invaserat, dejecto eo, qui tunc insederat, venerabili Papâ."--c. ii. Arnulf of Milan (apud Muratori, et ope quorundam civium Romanorum, Scrip. Ital. iv.), said to have made accurate investigations into the history of Rome at that time, writes of John XVI. : "De quo dictum est, quod Romani decus Imperii in Græcos trans ferre tentasset. Si quidem consultu m 997. He was at Pavia, Jan. 5, 998. the Empire, the usurper of the Papal See. His eyes were put out, his nose and his tongue cut off, and in this state, it is said by the command of the hard-hearted Pope himself, he was paraded through the streets on an ass with his face to the tail, and the common form of mockery,--a wine-bladder on his head." Crescentius shut himself up in the Castle of St. Angelo, and for a short time defied the Emperor. He was at length persuaded to capitulate; but the perfidious Otho ordered him to be beheaded with twelve of his leading partisans; their bodies were hung April 29, with their heads downward round the battlements of the castle. So, says the historian, turbulent Rome was awed to peace before the Emperor." But if Rome could not defend, it could revenge itself. The German Pope enjoyed his recovered digFeb. 999. nity hardly a year, and that not without disturbance; he was cut off in the flower of his age, as it ■Thietmar, iv. 21. "Gregorius V. | romance about the Pope's indignation apprehendere fecit illum sceles- at John's wearing the dress of a priest, tum invasorem, et fecit ei oculos eruere not of a penitent (as if the poor blinded et nasum cum linguâ abscindere et in and mutilated prisoner could choose asello sedere faciens Romam fecit eum his dress). With more flagrant discircumduci, cum utro in capite."- honesty, he attributes the cruelty of Chronic. Estens. apud Muratori, S. L. the Pope to the Roman people. Nilus, iii. 2, p. 337. Compare Cat. Pontif. a Greek it is true, predicted the wrath Eccard iv. Acta S. Nili. That holy of God both against Pope and Emperor. hermit is there said to have interceded On the same authority (Acta S. Nili) for the life of his wretched compatriot. rests the pilgrimage of Otho to Mount The Emperor consented; but the savage Garganus to expiate his cruelty toPope was not yet satisfied. ὁ δὲ wards John XVI. ἄγριος Πάπας ἐκεῖνος, μὴ χορτασθεὶς ἐφ ̓ οἷς ἔπραξεν εἰς τὸν προῤῥήθεντα Pλáyalov, tore his dress from him, and then ordered him to be paraded through the city, as in the text. Out of this Höfler has made a religious • Rudolphus Glaber has an incredible story of Crescentius appearing before the Emperor, and being allowed to re-enter the castle. P❝Sic Roma ante mobilis regis quievit in oculis."-Arnulf. was commonly believed by poison. Crescentius, too, was fearfully avenged: how avenged the close of three or four years will show, neither to the honour of the Emperor, nor of Rome." "Sed post discessum ejus (Ottonis felicity for discerning recondite vilIII.) a Romanis expulsus, ac deinde lanies, attributes Gregory V.'s death veneno peremptus est."-Vit. S. to his successor!! whom he calls the Meinwerci, c. 10. Compare Acta S. serpent of Ravenna-" die Schlange zu Nili. Gfrörer, with his marvellous Ravenna !"—p. 1507. CHAPTER XIII. Otho III. Pope Silvester II. GREGORY V. had died, but the youthful Emperor Otho lived, revolving magnificent schemes of empire, and little foreseeing the fate which awaited him so speedily in Rome, the object and the centre of his ambitious designs. The first Millennial period of Christianity was drawing to its close. In many parts of Christendom there prevailed a deep and settled apprehension that with the thousandth year of Christ the world would come to an end. That last day, when Christ would return to judge the world; the day which, since the times of the Apostles, the more profoundly religious, especially in periods of more than usual darkness and calamity, had beheld as immediately at hand, as actually bursting upon the world, could not delay beyond this fatal period. The vague but awful language of prophecy had dwelt in strong terms on the period of a thousand years, as if divinely appointed to enclose certain phases of human history; and many of the most dreadful predicted signs (never wanting to those who seek for them with the sagacity of terror), the wars and rumours of wars, above all the want of faith upon the earth, might seem to justify these cowering apprehensions of the timid-the triumphant anticipations of the more ardent and hopeful believers. At the beginning of the century, the end of the world had been announced by a grave council. The end of the world is at hand, was publicly preached at Paris. Men hastened to propitiate the coming, almost present Judge, by the sacrifice of their ill-gotten, now useless possessions. The deeds of the time, the donations of estates, and of all other gifts to the Church, are inscribed with the significant phrase, the end of the world being at hand.© But while these fears were lurking in the hearts of pious but obscure men; while they were darkening the dreams of holy recluses, and dictating the wills of penitent sinners trembling on the brink of the grave; the great men of Europe, the secular and ecclesiastical potentates entertained no timid misgivings as to the duration of the world. In Italy, in Rome the centre of Italy, these terrors were unknown. The Emperor himself, instead of apprehending the close, looked to the opening of the new Millennium but as the dawn of a Western Empire, as vast and comprehensive, more firmly established, and more stably organised, than that of Charlemagne. Otho had imagined the re-establishment of the Roman Empire, with Rome for its capital. See Gieseler, Lehrbuch, 2, 1, p. 267. Michelet, Hist. des Français, lib. iv. c. 1, sub init. "Dum jam jamque adventus imminet illius in majestate terribili ubi omnes cum gregibus suis venient pastores in conspectum pastoris æterni."-Concil. Trosleian, sub ann. 909. b Abbo, the Abbot of Fleury, had heard this sermon in 990.-Galland, xiv. 141. "Estimabatur enim ordo temporum et elementorum præterita ab initio moderans secula in chaos decidisse perpetuum, atque humani generis interitum."-Radolf. Glaber, 1. iv. 39. |