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HARVARD COLLEGE LIBRARY
TRANSFERRED FROM
BOTANICAL MUSEUM LIBRARY
FEB. 26, 1934

ARGYLE PRESS,
PRINTING AND BOOKBINDING,

265 & 267 CHERRY ST., N. Y.

W

34-138

5-15

Encyclopædia Britannica.-VOL. VIII,

PRINCIPAL CONTENTS:

ELECTRICITY. GEORGE CHRYSTAL, M. A., Prof. of
Mathematics, University of St Andrews.
ELECTROLYSIS. W. NAPIER SHAW, B. A., Emmanuel
College, Cambridge.

ELECTRO-METALLURGY. F. W. RUDLek.
ELECTROMETER. Prof. CHRYSTAL.

ELEPHANT. JOHN GIBSON, Industrial Museum, Edin.
ELEUSINIA. Rev. Sir G. W. Cox, Bart.

ELGIN. JAMES MACDONALD, LL. D.
ELIJAH. W. BROWNING SMITH.
ELIZABETH. R. CARRUTHERS, LL.D.
ELLENBOROUGH. GEORGE SMITH, LL.D.
EMBROIDERY. Mrs F. B. PALLISER, Author of
"History of Lace," &c.

EMBRYOLOGY. ALLEN THOMSON, M.D., LL.D.,
F.R.S.

EMEU. ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S., Prof. of Zoology,
Cambridge.

EMIGRATION. ROBERT SOMERS, Author of "Trades
Unions," &c.

EMPEROR and EMPIRE. JAMES BRYCE, D.C.L.,

Regius Prof. of Civil Law, Oxford

ENAMEL F. W. RUDLer.

ENCAUSTIC PAINTING. W. CAVE THOMAS.

ENCAUSTIC TILES. ARTHUR MAW.

ENCYCLOPEDIA. Rev. PONSONBY A. LYONS.

ENERGY. WILLIAM GARNETT, M.A., St John's

College, Cambridge.

ENGADINE. DOUGLAS W. FRESHFIELD.

ENGLAND (GEOGRAPHY AND STATISTICS). FREDERICK

MARTIN. (HISTORY). E. A. FREEMAN, D.C.L.,
and S. RAWSON GARDINER.

ENGLAND, CHURCH OF. Rev. Canon PERRY,

Author of "History of the Church of England."
ENGLISH BIBLE. Rev. J. H. BLUNT, M.A.
ENGLISH LANGUAGE. JAMES A. H. MURRAY,
LL.D.

ENGLISH LITERATURE. THOMAS ARNOLD, M.A.,
Author of "Manual of English Literature."
ENGRAVING. P. G. HAMERTON.

ENNIUS. W. Y. SELLAR, LL.D., Prof. of Humanity,

Edinburgh University.

ENTAIL. W. C. SMITH, LL.B., Advocate.
EPHEMERIDE. R. M'LAUCHLAN, F.R.S.

EPHESIANS. WM. MILLIGAN, D.D., Prof. of

Divinity, Aberdeen University.

EPHESUS. PERCY GARDNER.

EPICURUS. W. WALLACE; LL.D., Fellow of Merton

College, Oxford.

EPILEPSY. J. O. AFFLECK, M.D.

EPISCOPACY. Rev. Canon VENABLES.

EPITAPH. W. BROWNING SMITH.

EQUATION. A. CAYLEY, M. A., Sadlerian Prof. of

Pure Mathematics, Cambridge.

EQUITY. Prof. ED. ROBERTSON.

ERASMUS. Rev. MARK PATTISON, B.D., Rector of
Lincoln College, Oxford.

ERGOT. F. H. BUTLER.

ERIGENA. R. ADAMSON, M.A., Prof. of Political
Economy, Owens College, Manchester.

ERSKINE, LORD. H. J. E. FRASER, Advocate.
ESCHATOLOGY. Rev. A. S. AGLEN, M. A.
ESDRAS. Rev. J. SUTHERLAND BLACK, M.A.

ESKIMO. ROBERT BROWN, Ph.D., Author of "Races
of Mankind.”

ESSENES. THOMAS KIRKUP, M.A.
ESSEX. C. PAGE WOOD.

ESSEX, EARLS OF. T. F. HENDERSON.
ESTHER. Rev. T. K. CHEYNE, M.A., Hebrew

Lecturer, Balliol College, Oxford.

ETHER. J. CLERK MAXWELL, F.R.S., Prof. of Exper!-
mental Physics, Cambridge.

ETHICS. HENRY SIDGWICK, M. A., Lecturer in Moral
Science, Trinity College, Cambridge,
ETHNOGRAPHY. ELIE RECLUS.

ETNA. G. F. RODWELL, Editor of "Dictionary of
Science."

ETRURIA. A. S. MURRAY and Dr W. DEECKE.

EUBOEA. Rev. H. F. ToZER, M.A.

EUCHARIST. Rev. Canon VENABLES.

EUCHRE. HENRY JONES.

EUCLID. JOHN S. MACKAY, M. A.

EUPHRATES. Maj.-Gen. Sir HENRY C. RAWLINSON,

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ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA.

ELE-ELE

LEANOR, of Aquitaine (1122-1204), queen of France and afterwards of England, was the daughter of William IX, the last duke of Guienne, and was born in 1122. She succeeded her father in 1138, and was married the same year to Louis VII. of France. Her lively and somewhat frivolous manners, and her love of pleasure, did not fit her for the society of a husband who was naturally austere, and who from religious conviction had adopted many ascetic habits. They became gradually estranged, and in the Holy Land, whither she had accompanied Louis in 1147, their quarrels became so frequent and so bitter that at last a divorce was agreed upon, which on their return from France was completed under the pretext of kinship, 18th March 1152. Six months afterwards she gave her hand and her possessions to Henry of Navarre, who in 1155 mounted the throne of England as Henry II. That the duchy of Guienne should thus become permanently annexed to the English crown was naturally displeasing to Louis, and the indirect consequence of his displeasure was protracted wars between France and England. In other respects also the marriage had unhappy consequences. The inâuelities of Henry, and the special favours he showed to one of his mistresses, so greatly roused Eleanor's jealousy, that she incited her son Richard to rebellion, and also intrigued with her former husband to get him to lend his influence to the great league formed against Henry in 1173. Her son had fled to Louis, and she was preparing to follow him when she was arrested and placed in confinement, where she remained till the death of her husband in 1189. As soon as he died she regained her liberty, and reigned as regent until Richard's arrival from France. She also held this position during Richard's absence in the Holy Land, for which he left in 1190. After his escape in 1194 from the captivity which befell him as he was returning home, the retired to the abbey of Fontevrault, where she died April 1, 1204.

ELEATIC SCHOOL, a Greek school of philosophy, so called because Elea was the birth-place or residence of its chief representatives. Parmenides, who was born at Elea probably about the year 515, was the first completely to develop the Eleatic doctrines; but his philosophy has a very close connection with that of Xenophanes, who was bort more than a century earlier. Xenophanes, indeed,

has been described as the founder of the school, and though that title is with more strictness to be given to Parmenides, it may not incorrectly be applied to him. The philosophy of Xenophanes took its rise in a strong antagonism to the popular anthropomorphic mythology; and, though it contains part, it is far from containing the whole, of the Eleatic doctrine as maintained by Parmenides and his followers. Its chief doctrines were that "the One is God," and that God is self-existent, eternal, unchangeable, immovable, of the same substance throughout, and in every respect incomparable to man.

The Eleatic philosophy is founded upon the doctrine of a complete severance and opposition of thought and sense. Truth is in no degree attainable by sense; sense gives only false appearances, non-being: it is by thought alone that we arrive at the knowledge of being, at the great truth that "the All is One," eternal, unchangeable; or rather, as Hegel rightly interprets the Eleatics, thought is being. No distinction is drawn by Parmenides between thought and material being; the "One and All," indeed, is described materially as a perfect and immovable sphere. The notions of creation, change and destruction, diversity and multiplicity, time and space, and the various sensations, are all mere false appearances of sense, which thought shows to be contradictory and false. Upon a very common confusion of the word exist with the verb to be, which does not necessarily imply existence, he founded his argument against the possibility of creation: creation cannot be, for being cannot arise out of non-being; nor can non-being be. Again, there can be no difference or change except in appearance, for a thing cannot arise from what is different from it. But this side of the Eleatic argument was more completely developed by Zeno. In the second part of his poem, Parmenides, notwithstanding his assertion of their falseness, does offer an explanation of the facts of conscious

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in which these elements are mixed in their composition. Even the dead body feels cold and darkness.

Zeno, born in the beginning of the 5th century B.C., the fellow-townsman, disciple, and adopted son of Parmenides, is famous for his attempts to prove that the notions of time, space, motion, multiplicity, sight, sound, &c., are selfcontradictory and unthinkable. His paradoxes were stated with a subtlety which has forced thinkers even of distinction, who were opposed to his main position, for instance, Sir William Hamilton, to admit some of them to be unanswerable. Against motion Zeno directed several arguments, the most celebrated being that of Achilles and the tortoise, which are founded upon the confusion of that which is infinitely divisible with that which is infinite. Against space Zeno argued that any space, however large, must be in a larger space, this larger space again in a still larger, and so on ad infinitum. Against the manifold he argued (1) that the manifold, being divisible into the infinitely small, i.e., into that which has no magnitude, can itself have none, as divisions that have no magnitude must make up a whole without magnitude; and (2) that, being divisible into an infinite number of parts, it must be infinitely large. Against sound he argued and he applied similar reasoning to sight-that, as you cannot hear a single grain of corn fall, you cannot hear the sound of a number of grains falling, the sound of the falling of the number of grains being made up of the sounds of the falling of each grain. Thus Zeno sought to prove that thought and sense are opposed, and that the latter, contradicting itself, proves itself unworthy of the consideration of the philosopher.

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ELECTIONS. The law of parliamentary and municipal elections in England is now governed as to procedure by the 35 and 36 Vict. c. 33 (the Ballot Act, 1872), and as to disputed returns by the 31 and 32 Vict. c. 125 (Par liamentary Elections Act, 1868) and 35 and 36 Vict. c. 60. See BALLOT and BRIBERY.

The inquiry into a disputed parliamentary election was formerly conducted before a committee of the House of Commons, chosen as nearly as possible from both sides of the House for that particular business. The decisions of these tribunals laboured under the suspicion of being prompted by party feeling, and by the above-named Act of 1868 the jurisdiction was finally transferred to Her Majesty's judges, notwithstanding the general unwillingness of the bench to accept a class of business which they feared might bring their integrity into dispute. In future no election shall be questioned except in accordance with the provisions of this Act. Section 11 of the Act orders, inter alia, that the trial of every election petition shall be conducted before a puisne judge of one of the common law courts at Westminster and Dublin; that the said courts shall each select a judge to be placed on the rota for the trial of election petitions; that the said judges shall try petitions standing for trial according to seniority or otherwise, as they may agree; that the trial shall take place in the county or borough to which the petition refers, unless the court should think it desirable to hold it elsewhere. The judge shall determine "whether the member whose return is complained of, or any and what other person, was duly returned and elected, or whether the election was void," and shall certify his determination to the Speaker. When corrupt The last of the Eleatic teachers was Melissus of Samos, practices have been charged the judge shall also report (1) the friend of Heraclitus, who was probably born somewhat whether any such practice has been committed by or with later than Zeno. We only possess fragments of his works, the knowledge or consent of any candidate, and the nature preserved by Simplicius and collected by Brandis. His thereof; (2) the names of persons proved to have been modifications of the doctrines of his master, Parmenides, guilty of any corrupt practice; and (3) whether corrupt are not important, with the exception of his assertion of practices have extensively prevailed at the election. the infinity, the unlimitedness, of " the One and All," and his distinct insistance upon the doctrine that the "One and All" is immaterial, unextended, without parts.

See the separate articles XENOPHANES, PARMENIDES, and ZENO.

ELECAMPANE (M. Lat., Enula Campana), a perennial composite plant, the Inula Helenium of Linnæus, which is common in many parts of Britain, and ranges throughout central and southern Europe, and in Asia as far eastwards as the Himalayas. Its stem attains a height of from 3 to 5 feet; the leaves are serrate-dentate, the lower ones stalked, the rest embracing the stem; the flowers are yellow, and 2 inches broad, and have many rays, each three-notched at the extremity. The root, the radix inula of pharmacy, is thick, branching, and mucilaginous, and has a warm bitter taste and a camphoraceous odour. For medicinal purposes it should be procured from plants not more than two or three years old. Besides inulin, C12H20O10, a body isomeric with starch, the root contains, according to Kallen, two crystallizable substances-helenin, C¿H ̧Ó, and alanicam phor, CH10. By the ancients the root was employed both as a medicine and as a condiment, and in England it was formerly in great repute as an aromatic tonic and stimulant of the secretory organs. "The fresh roots of elecampane preserved with sugar, or made into a syrup or conserve," are recommended by Parkinson in his Theatrum Botanicum as "very effectual to warm a cold and windy stomack, and the pricking and stitches therein or in the sides caused by the Spleene, and to helpe the cough, shortnesse of breath, and wheesing in the Lungs." As a drug, however, the root is now seldom resorted to except in veterinary practice. In France and Switzerland it is used in the manufacture of absinthe.

Questions of law may be referred to the decision of the Court of Common Pleas. The report of the judge is equivalent to the report of an election committee under the old system. Petitions may be presented by the following persons :-(1) some person who has voted or had the right to vote at the election; (2) some person claiming to have a right to be returned or elected; (3) some person alleging himself to have been a candidate. The trial of a petition shall be proceeded with notwithstanding the acceptance by the respondent of an office of profit under the Crown, and notwithstanding the prorogation of Parliament; though it would appear that the dissolution of Parliament abates a petition. The judge appointed to try a petition shall be received with the same state as a judge of assize in an assize town. The costs and expenses of the petition shall be paid by the parties in such manner and such proportions as the court or judge may determine, regard being had to the discouragement of needless expense by throwing the burden thereof on the parties by whom it has been caused, whether they are on the whole successful or not. When a returning officer has wilfully neglected to return a person found on petition to have been entitled to be returned, such person may sue the officer (within one year of the act complained of, or six months of the trial of the petition), and shall recover double the damage he has actually sustained, together with full costs of suit.

To meet the additional work imposed on the English courts of common law by this Act, power was given to appoint an additional judge to each of them. Section 58 applies the provisions of the Act, with certain modifications, to Scotland.

This, like the Ballot Act, is a continuing Act.

Petitions against municipal elections are dealt with in 35

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