the building and the engineering - which include nearly 2,500,000 out of a total of 15,000,000 workmen. As in the case of the sickness insurance, the employees, the employers, and the State all contribute; the benefit is limited to a maximum of fifteen weeks, and is withheld in case the unemployment is due to misconduct, to strikes or lockouts. These socialistic features of the Liberal program were due mainly to Mr. Lloyd George who became Chancellor of the Exchequer in 1908 and are being watched with great interest. The Coöperative Movement. Trade-Unionism. The coöperative movement in England, of which Robert Owen was the practical founder, started as an effort to check the evils of competition. His ideas, first of a benevolent coöperation between employers and workmen and then of State organized communities in which the employer had no place, came to nothing; but an indirect result, not contemplated by him, was the organization of coöperative shops. The first to achieve practical success was started at Rochdale in 1844. Since then many other ventures have been undertaken. While attempts at coöperative production have been, generally speaking, failures, coöperative shops for distribution have had a considerable if not sensational success, and, in course of time, their members formed a national organization and began to hold annual congresses and to go into the wholesale business. The trade-unions of various trades began to hold annual congresses in 1870-before Acts of 1871, 1875 and 1876 gave them legal status. In 1899 a General Federation of TradeUnions, affiliated with kindred organizations on the Continent, was created" to supplement the activities of the Trade-Union Congress." Although, in 1901, in the famous Taff Vale Case, the House of Lords struck a blow at trade-unionism, by a decision" that the members of the trade-union are liable singly and collectively for acts committed under the auspices of the Union," this decision was offset to a large degree by the Trades Dispute Act of 1906 — to which the Peers gave a number of labor exchanges, which serve to bring employers and laborers together, and, if necessary, advance money to pay the latter's traveling expenses to the place where work is offered him.

1 In 1867, as a consequence of outrages committed against workmen in Sheffield, and to a less degree in Manchester, a Royal Commission was appointed to investigate the whole subject of the Trade-Unions, held to be responsible. It was shown that they labored under serious disabilities. Some of the judges, at least, were of the opinion that any combination to raise wages was a "conspiracy and a misdemeanor" at common law. Hence the discontent of the Unions; but it was found that, while one murder and many cases of intimidation could be traced to their members, only twelve unions out of sixty in Sheffield, and only one in Manchester were involved. So, by the Trade-Union Act of 1871, their legality was formally recognized.

reluctant assent-protecting the funds of trade-unions. By the Osborne Judgment of 1909 the Lords decided that it was illegal to employ moneys raised by compulsory contributions to pay the salaries of the members representing them in Parliament. This, again, has been offset by a measure of 1911 providing for the payment of all members of the House of Commons at £400 a year.

Laborite Political Parties. Meantime, labor had sought to reinforce the work of the trade-unions by organizing into political parties. Two labor candidates stood for Parliament in 1868, and, six years later, when the number had risen to thirteen, two were elected. In 1893 the Independent Labor Party was organized for the purpose, not only of demanding State intervention in the interests of labor — for procuring an eight-hour day for example - but with the avowed socialistic aim of establishing "collective ownership and control of the means of production, distribution and exchange." Since these views proved too radical for the rank and file of the British workmen the Trade-Union Congress, in 1899, took steps which resulted in the organization of a group in the Commons prepared "to coöperate with any party which for the time being may be engaged in promoting legislation in the direct interest of labor." In 1906 this organization took the name of the Labor Party, and succeeded in electing twentynine out of fifty-one candidates, whereas the Independent Laborites elected seven. Although the number of labor representatives has since declined somewhat, the Liberal party depends upon them, together with the Irish Nationalists, for a majority.

Socialism. English socialism was for a long time identified with Robert Owen, who enunciated his views nearly twenty years before the word was coined in 1835. His work, however, had no direct result, and the system owes its development to Continental thinkers. About the middle of the century, however, a school of Christian Socialists was founded in England by Charles Kingsley, Thomas Hughes and others as a protest against the prevailing laissez-faire. While Christian Socialism, as a formal movement, had a short life, it planted seeds which have never died. In 1864 an International Workingmen's Association was formed in London by the combined efforts of British trades unionists and Continental refugees. But, as a whole, however, the British workmen have never been socialists, though the depressions from 1875 to 1880 had the effect of accentuating socialistic tendencies, of developing a new unionism more aggressive and less individualistic than the old. The Democratic Federation, dating from 1881, and its reconstitution two years later, under the name Social Democratic Federation, marks the modern stage. Yet

neither the Federation, nor the Social Democratic party which it formed, has been very successful, and both have, to a large degree, been forced to act with the non-socialistic laborites. Recently, however, syndicalisma revolutionary trade-unionism originating in France about 1906, and aiming to control production and distribution has been a force in general strikes. The Fabian Society, founded in 1883, consists of educated men, including many liberals, who hold moderate theoretical socialistic views, and directs its appeal mainly to the upper and middle classes. While out-and-out socialism has made little headway, socialistic principles have gained increasingly even in the Conservative and Liberal parties, and have shown their strength in the legislation outlined above, undertaken by the latter party since 1906.

FOR ADDITIONAL READING

General Conditions. Traill, Social England, VI, to 1885. J. Ashton, When William IV was King (1896). Brodrick and Fotheringham, ch. XX. Low and Sanders, ch. XX. Walpole, History of England, III, ch. XII; IV, ch. XVII; VI, conclusion. History of Twenty-five Years, I, ch. I. Constitutional and Legal. May, Constitutional History. Maitland, Constitutional History, period IV, an excellent brief survey. D. J. Medley, Manual of English Constitutional History, a valuable work of reference, not chronological. E. Jenks, Short History of the English Law (1912), especially period IV. Sir R. W. Anson, Law and Custom of the Constitution (3 vols. 3d ed., 1907). A. V. Dicey, Law and Public Opinion (8th ed., 1915), very suggestive. W. Bagehot, The English Constitution (2d ed., 1872). S. Low, The Governance of England (1904). L. Courtney, The Working Constitution of the United Kingdom (1901). T. F. Moran, The Theory and Practice of the English Government (1908). D. D. Wallace, The Government of England (1917). The three latter are good brief accounts. A. L. Lowell, The Government of England (2 vols., 1910), the standard work on the subject.

Social and Industrial. Usher, Industrial History (bibliography following text, XIV-XVII). Porter's Progress of the Nation (ed. F. W. Hirst, 1912). McCulloch, Dictionary of Commerce and Commercial Navigation (18601872). R. H. Palgrave, Dictionary of Political Economy (1894-99). T. Mackay, History of the English Poor Law (1904). S. and B. Webb's Trade Unions (1894, rev. ed. 1919) and Industrial Democracy (1897). G. J. Holyoake's History of Co-operation (2 vols., rev. ed. 1906). J. F. Wilkinson, The Friendly Society Movement (1891). Sir E. W. Brabrook, Provident Societies and Industrial Welfare (1898). Sir E. F. Du Cane, The Punishment and Prevention of Crime (1885). F. A. Ogg, Social Progress in Contemporary Europe (1912), which contains much on England, is an excellent compendium. C. Hayes, British Social Politics (1913), valuable for legislation since 1906. Percy Alden, Democratic England (1912). G. H. Perris, Indus

trial History of Modern England (1914). A. E. Metcalfe, Woman's Effort (1917), “a chronicle of British women's fifty years struggle for citizenship." See also Cambridge Modern History, XII, ch. XXIII (bibliography 957966). R. E. Prothero, English Farming Past and Present (1913). S. Smiles, Lives of George and Robert Stephenson (1868). Acworth, The Railways of England (1900).

Science and Literature. G. J. Romanes, Darwin and After Darwin (1892-7). F. Darwin ed., Life and Letters of Charles Darwin (3 vols., 1887). O. Lodge, Pioneers of Science (1893). A. R. Wallace, The Wonderful Century (1898). R. Garnett, Heroes of Science (1885). G. P. Gooch, History and Historians in the Nineteenth Century (1913). Cambridge Modern History, XI, ch. XIII (bibliography 934-936), XII, ch. XXVI (bibliography 972-976). Moody and Lovett, English Literature. Taine, English Literature. McCarthy, Our Own Times, II, ch. XXIX, IV, ch. LXVII. E. C. Stedman, Victorian Poets (1903). Mrs. Oliphant, A Literary History of England in the Nineteenth Century (1882). W. L. Cross, The Development of the English Novel (1911). J. A. Buckley and W. T. Williams, A Guide to British Historical Fiction (1912). For further references on the novel see Moody and Lovett, 451. For literature in general see ch. XLIX above.

The Church. Wakeman, ch. XX. F. W. Cornish, The History of the English Church (pts. I and II, 1910). Walpole, History of England, V, XXI ; History of Twenty-five Years, IV, XIX. Newman, Apologia pro Vita Sua (1864-5), frequently reprinted. R. W. Church, The Oxford Movement (1891). W. Ward, William George Ward and the Catholic Revival (1893). B. Ward, The Sequel to Catholic Emancipation, 1820-1850 (2 vols., 1915). S. L. Ollard, A Short History of the Oxford Movement (1915). P. H. Brown, Scotland, III. W. L. Mathieson, Church and Reform in Scotland, 17971843 (1918). H. J. Laski, Studies in the Problems of Sovereignty (1917), relates to the Oxford and Free Kirk movements. For further references see Low and Sanders, 506-507.

CHAPTER LVI

SKETCH OF THE REIGN OF EDWARD VII (1901-1910) AND OF THE EARLY YEARS OF GEORGE V (1910-1914)

Edward VII. Accession and Character. - Albert Edward, who, in his sixtieth year, ascended the throne as Edward VII, 22 January, 1901, was a man of unusual social gifts and worldly experience, genial, tactful and fond of seeking acquaintances from the most diverse walks of life, though he was punctilious in matters of ceremony on state occasions. He spent short terms at various universities; but the rigid training to which his parents subjected him disinclined him for serious study; books made little appeal to him, and in later life he rarely read anything but the newspapers. Furthermore, he was a patron of sport, particularly of the turf, he was an enthusiastic supporter of the theater and the opera, as well as the leader of fashion in London; indeed his love of pleasure and his bohemian tastes aroused serious criticism at times on the part of the soberer folk; but the emergence of Queen Victoria from her seclusion, the swelling tide of Imperialistic sentiment, together with his own good nature and public spirit, made him a popular figure years before he became King. While he was an ardent promoter of philanthropic causes and a ready and gracious speaker at dedications of public buildings and other ceremonious occasions, unhappily his mother excluded him from serious political activities; it was not till Gladstone's last Ministry (1892-1894), that Cabinet business was regularly communicated to him, and he did. not have unrestricted access to foreign dispatches until Salisbury took the Premiership for the third and last time in 1895. But if he was not studious or systematically trained, he was observant; he gathered stores of information from those with whom he conversed and retained what he heard. He was widely traveled: he visited, at one time or another, the chief possessions of the British Empire, and was accustomed to spend parts of each year in Continental capitals and watering places. In his close association with foreign Sovereigns and foreign ambassadors he learned much that was officially kept from him; but he knew little and cared little for routine matters domestic or foreign.