periment began. Tragedies in heroic couplets and prose comedies of wit and manners - both form and content markedly influenced by French models― took the place of the older tragedies and romantic comedies in blank verse. The French models were frequently immoral enough; but transformed into English dress, or rather undress, they were, all too often, insufferably coarse and cynical. For this Charles II and his courtiers were, to a large degree responsible, by making sensuality and cynicism the mark of a fine gentleman. The comedies, disagreeable as most of them are, have great historical value as reflections of contemporary life, especially of the upper classes in London, and because the prologues and epilogues were used, particularly by Dryden, for airing political animosities. Queen Mary, setting her face against the prevailing tendency, did something toward purifying the drama, and Jeremy Collier registered a vigorous protest in his Short View of the Profaneness and Immorality of the English Stage, 1698. Dryden admitted the justice of the rebuke, but improvement was slow. Real reform only came with the sentimental comedy initiated by Richard Steele.

Art, Architecture, and Music. While pride of ancestry prompted many to employ Dutch and Flemish artists to execute family portraits, and while there were collectors, including Charles I, of no mean repute, there was, nevertheless, no general appreciation of art among seventeenth-century Englishmen. Nor, except in miniatures, were there any native portrait painters of real note. Of foreign artists in England, the most famous were Rubens (1577-1640) and Vandyke (1599–1641). The former, during a brief sojourn, painted several portraits and received an order for the decoration of Whitehall. The latter remained in England most of the time from 1632 till his death. He was appointed Court painter and executed several fine pictures of Charles I and his family, as well as of prominent men of the time. Cromwell, who was fond both of music and painting, had an official painter, though, in addition, he gave his patronage to the more famous Peter Lely (16181680). Charles II inherited none of his father's taste for art, but Lely became his Court painter and is famous for his portraits of the royal favorites.

In architecture, the century was dominated by Inigo Jones (15731652) and Christopher Wren (1632-1723). This fact marks a significant departure from the traditions of the Middle Ages, when the style and not the man was the distinguishing factor. Jones was profoundly influenced by the Italian Palladio, notable for his composite adaptation of the ancient Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian forms. Almost no new churches were built during the first half of the century; but Jones did

much in the way of restoring ecclesiastical edifices and public buildings. Wren, his famous successor, was active as an architect from 1663 to 1718. The fire of London gave him an opportunity to rebuild St. Paul's, as well as about fifty parish churches. Chief among the other works of his long and busy life is the Royal Hospital at Greenwich. Unfortunately, his two principal buildings do not show him at his best; for St. Paul's was not completed according to his original designs, while Greenwich Hospital was decidedly marred by the architect who succeeded him.

With the striking exception of Cromwell, the Puritans were notoriously hostile to music. Charles II, in contrast to his indifference to other forms of art, was an enthusiastic patron of music, and Henry Purcell (1658-1695), recognized as England's greatest musical genius, came to the front in his reign. His famous grand opera Dido and Eneas (1675) was the first ever written to an English poem; but his supreme achievements were in Church music.

Final Summary of the Period. Thus, aside from epoch-making political events, the century was a notable one. It witnessed the later plays of Shakespeare as well as those of Ben Jonson, and hosts of other dramatists; the writings of Milton, and of innumerable poets besides; compositions in stately prose of men of letters and divines; treatises on political philosophy, trade, and economics; and, what was big in future results, the foundation stones of empire were laid in America and in India.

FOR ADDITIONAL READING

General Conditions. Traill, Social England, IV. Trevelyan, England under the Stuarts, chs. I, II, an admirable picture of the life of the upper and lower classes in the early Stuart period. Macaulay, I, ch. III, a famous description of conditions in the Restoration period. W. E. Sydney, Social Life in England, 1660–1690 (1892).

Social and Industrial. Cunningham, English Industry and Commerce. Unwin, Social and Industrial Organization. Rogers, Agriculture and Prices, V, VI. W. A. Hewins, English Trade and Finance, chiefly in the Seventeenth Century (1892). Elizabeth Godfrey, Home Life under the Stuarts (1903) and Social Life under the Stuarts (1904). A. H. Hamilton, Quarter Sessions from Elizabeth to Anne (1878) relates chiefly to Devonshire. Lady Verney, Memoirs of the Verney Family (4 vols., 1892-1899). H. B. Wheatley, Samuel Pepys and the World He Lived In (1880). Rose M. Bradley, The English Housewife in the XVII and XVIII Centuries (1913). Eleanor Trotter, Seventeenth Century Life in the Country Parish (1919).

Literary and Intellectual. Moody and Lovett; Taine; Jusserand and Cambridge History of Literature. Lodge, Political History, ch. XX. Cam

bridge Modern History, IV, ch. XXVI, V, chs. III, VI, XXIII (bibliographies IV, 948-950, V, 775-779, 799-808, 903-910). E. Dowden, Puritan and Anglican (1900). Masson, Milton; the standard work. There are short Lives of Milton by Mark Pattison (1879, 1906) and Sir Walter Raleigh (1900). See also Macaulay's essay on Milton. Saintsbury, Dryden (1881, 1902).

Religion and Church. Hutton and Wakeman as above. J. Hunt, Religious Thought in England (3 vols., 1870). J. H. Overton, Life in the English Church, 1660-1714 (1885). Babington, Mr. Macaulay's Character of the Clergy (1849). Tatham, The Puritans in Power. Cambridge Modern History, chs. XI, XXIV (bibliography, 838-839, 911-917).

Contemporary. Pepys's Diary; Evelyn's Diary; R. Baxter, Narrative of the Most Memorable Passages of His Life and Times (ed. M. Sylvester, 1696); and George Fox, Journal (1694, ed. W. Armistead, 2 vols., 1852) a great spiritual autobiography.

Political philosophy. Sir Robert Filmer, Patriarcha, or the Natural Power of Kings (1680, ed. 1903, introd. by Henry Morley). Thomas Hobbes, The Leviathan (ed. A. R. Waller, 1904). John Locke, Two Treatises on Civil Government (1903, introd. by Henry Morley). G. P. Gooch, Political Thought in England from Bacon to Halifax (1914). H. J. Laski, English Political Thought from Locke to Bentham. (Home University Library.)

CHAPTER XXXVI

THE EARLY YEARS OF THE NEW DYNASTY AND THE OPENING OF THE GREAT WAR. WILLIAM AND MARY (1689-1694)

The Significance of the Reign of William and Mary. The re gn of William is significant from the fact that, as " the champion of Protestantism and the liberties of Europe against French ascendancy," he plunged England into a whirlpool of European war and diplomacy from which she emerged as the leading Colonial and Sea Power of the world. The internal progress of the period is also noteworthy. Fundamental constitutional questions were defined and settled: the order of succession was regulated in the Bill of Rights and in the Act of Settlement which supplemented it; a Toleration Act was passed; the National Debt was funded; the Bank of England was established; the censorship of the press came to an end; procedure in treason trials was reformed; and Cabinet and party government began to take modern shape. This last point is of peculiar importance, because the machinery of the English Cabinet and party system is the most perfect which has yet been devised for speedily and peacefully voicing the will of the people and because it is the system which has been adopted, with more or less variation, by the chief European governments in recent times. It is essentially a government by an executive committee of Parliament whose members represent and are responsible to the majority party of the House of Commons, which, in its turn, represents the qualified voters of the country.

The Reaction against William (1689). In spite of the joy manifested at his accession, a reaction against William soon set in. It was due, partly to the King's own character and policy, partly to the nature of the situation. He was cold and unsympathetic, he loved Dutchmen and Dutch ways, he distrusted Englishmen and chafed at his necessary residence in England as a joyless exile. Patient and courageous in great matters, he was irritable and impatient of opposition in little things, while his manners left much to be desired. Then his policy was a disappointment to the Whigs who had led the movement to place

him on the throne; for he was no friend of popular liberty and had ousted James primarily to break up the royal alliance with France and to secure English resources for his great work. Furthermore, he had to face a most difficult situation; for impelled by a common fear of James, the most diverse elements had combined momentarily to support him. Truly, Englishmen and Dutchmen, Whigs and Tories, Churchmen and Nonconformists made strange bedfellows. The English and the Dutch were old trade rivals who had been three times at war within half a century. The Whigs stood for a limited monarchy and toleration, and had old scores to settle with the party who had oppressed them during the reign of Charles II and the early years of James II. The Tories, who stood for Divine hereditary right and an exclusive Establishment, directly the excitement was over, came to be ashamed of the part they had taken in expelling the Lord's anointed. Many of the Whigs, too, were dissatisfied, some because they felt themselves insufficiently rewarded, others because their advice in ordering public affairs was neither sought nor heeded. Although the really disaffected were in a minority, they were so vociferous and busy that they might have caused serious trouble but for the fact that Louis XIV, by undertaking to restore James by force, and with the aid of the dreaded Irish into the bargain, forced the moderates of both parties to cling to William. In selecting his first Ministry, he sought to balance parties, though in view of the critical situation abroad, and the particular interests which he had at stake, he took charge of foreign affairs himself.

The Mutiny Act (1689). The mutiny of an English regiment at Ipswich, in the first year of the reign, led to the passage of a measure which was bound, in any case, to have come before long; since, according to the existing law, there were no adequate means of dealing with such crises. The Mutiny Act, which began by declaring courts martial and military discipline illegal, conferred upon William the authority to provide for the exercise of such extraordinary jurisdiction for six months. Later the Act was regularly renewed, but never for longer than a year. It is now called the Army Act.

The Toleration Act (1689). - Also in this eventful year, the Protestant Dissenters for the first time obtained legal recognition and toleration. William, a Calvinist by training but a Latitudinarian by conviction, was a prime mover; however, he had the solid backing of a growing rationalistic opinion, voiced by Locke in his Letters on Toleration, in which he argued that the State had no right to interfere with the way men might choose to worship. Furthermore, certain influential Tories felt under obligation to redeem the promises they had made