The Yorkists in Exile.—The "ill-day of St. Albans," however, was followed by more than four years of comparative peace, though hatreds were bitter, private feuds were waged unsuppressed, and the Queen was busily courting the aid of the Scots and the French. By the summer of 1459, both parties were again arrayed in arms; but, for the time being, the royalist forces were too strong for the Yorkists, most of whom either disbanded or deserted to the enemy. Richard fled to Ireland, while his son Edward, Earl of March, together with a faithful supporter, the Earl of Warwick, risked a wild ride through a hostile country and crossed over to Calais. However, the government of the triumphant Lancastrians, with the poor King dominated by Margaret and a "covetous Council," proved weak and ineffective, and more and more in the face of poverty, disorder, and selfish faction, the hearts of the people were turned to the leaders in exile who might bring them relief.

Return of the Yorkists. Richard's Death at Wakefield (1465). — In June, 1460, Warwick and the Earl of March landed in Kent. Having issued a manifesto in which they set forth their grievances and the distempers of the realm, they proceeded to London, 2 July, whence, reënforced by musters streaming in from every side, they passed north and, at Northampton, defeated Henry VI and made him prisoner. Making no effort to crush Margaret, engaged in rousing the northern lords, they returned to London. Here they were joined by Richard, who had returned from Ireland in royal state, and who formally in Parliament claimed the crown as "heir of Richard II." Since this claim to succeed forthwith proved unacceptable even to his champion, Warwick, a compromise was arranged by which Henry was to remain King for life and Richard was to be recognized as his heir. Meanwhile, Margaret, after distressing hardships and harrowing adventures, had mustered a strong force in the north. Richard, underestimating her strength, marched against her with a small army and was defeated and slain at the battle of Wakefield, 29 December, 1460.

Warwick, the Kingmaker. On the death of Richard of York, Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick, became the leader of the Yorkists, for the Duke's son, Edward, Earl of March, a youth of eighteen, was as yet distinguished for nothing save his strength, his beauty, and his great bravery. Warwick, though by no means preeminent as a general or as a statesman, was a skilled diplomatist and politician; moreover, he was first cousin to Edward, he was the greatest landowner in England, and dispensed lavish hospitality. Regarded as the leader of the party of reform and good government, he has, how

ever, been very appropriately styled "the last of the barons"; for he was the last representative of a great noble family to exercise almost royal powers and powerfully to influence English history with hordes of armed retainers. Nor was he above the ambitions of his class, and the cry of reform which he raised and the movement which he led was really to secure more power for himself and his house. For that reason he ingratiated himself with the people by fair promises, and for that reason he now made, and strove later to unmake, a King. Edward Becomes King of England (4 March, 1461). After Richard's defeat and death, Margaret marched south to release her husband. While Edward was occupied with the Lancastrians in the west, she inflicted an overwhelming defeat on Warwick at the second battle of St. Albans, 17 February, 1461. Henry was rescued from his enemies; but, owing to his persuasions for he was anxious to avoid more pillaging and bloodshed - Margaret did not march at once on London. While she was negotiating for its capitulation, Warwick and Edward, who had at length joined forces, pressed into the City and seized the fruits of her victory. Edward was declared King by a mass meeting of the citizens and the Yorkist lords. Though he was not legally elected, he took his seat on the throne at Westminster, 4 March, 1461, with the crown on his head and the scepter in his hand and received the homage of the magnates.

FOR ADDITIONAL READING

(Chapters XV and XVI)

Mainly narrative. Sir James H. Ramsay, Lancaster and York (2 vols., 1892), pays particular attention to military and financial history; Oman, Vickers, and Stubbs, Constitutional History, previously cited. J. H. Wylie, History of England under Henry IV (4 vols., 1884-1898) is a scholarly exhaustive study. C. L. Kingsford's Henry V (1901) is a good brief biography. Kriehn, The English Rising of 1450 (1892) throws new light on Cade's rebellion. K. H. Vickers, Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester (1907) is a full and scholarly account.

An authoritative work on an important aspect of constitutional development is J. F. Baldwin, The King's Council in England during the Middle Ages (1913).

Selections from the sources, Adams and Stephens, nos. 104-128.

CHAPTER XVII

THE YORKIST KINGS AND THE END OF THE WARS OF THE ROSES. EDWARD IV (1461-1483); EDWARD V (1483); RICHARD III (1483-1485)

The New King, Edward IV. Margaret's army was so embittered and so discouraged that she was obliged to retreat northward. Edward and Warwick started in pursuit, and near Towton, on the high road to York, they overtook and defeated the Lancastrian forces in a bloody battle, 29 March, 1461. Henry and the Queen fled across the Scotch border, while Edward returned to London where he was formally crowned, 28 June. The Yorkist line had at length displaced its rival, and with its baronial supporters — whatever their motives as a selfstyled party of reform — had overthrown a régime incompetent and corrupt enough in all conscience. The people, weary of disorder at home and disgusted at the losses in France, eagerly accepted a change in hopes of better things. Poor Henry had to give way to a stronger and more spirited ruler. Edward Plantagenet was described as the handsomest prince in Europe. He was jovial, hearty, and familiar with all sorts and conditions of people. Fond of pleasure and naturally indolent he was prone to trust to others. On the other hand, he had streak of thrift which led him to keep his coffers filled by heavy exactions and profitable private trading, and likewise to foster the commerce and general prosperity of the country. At crises, too, he could rouse himself and act with great decision and vigor. As time went on, his worst qualities became more pronounced; his love of pleasure turned to viciousness and dissipation; he became cruel, bloodthirsty, and extortionate, and died at forty, worn out by self-indulgence.

Edward's Estrangement from Warwick (1464). — It was not till 1464 that Edward was fully master of England. In that same year he married Elizabeth, a widowed daughter of Richard Woodville. This step estranged the King's chief supporter, Warwick, for the Woodvilles were of the Lancastrian connection, and Edward, under the influence of his beautiful, ambitious wife, began to heap favors on her relatives at the expense of the Nevilles and other families who had