the general supervision of a steward whose duties were mainly legal. It was still practically impossible to keep any considerable amount of stock over the winter. Aside from a heavy famine, during the years 1257–1259, the period was, in general, one of plenty and prosperity. FOR ADDITIONAL READING Narrative. Davis; Sir J. H. Ramsay, The Dawn of the Constitution (1908); and T. F. Tout, Political History of England (1905), an interesting and scholarly account of the period from the accession of Henry III to the death of Edward I. Stubbs, Early Plantagenets (1886), owing to its grouping of topics, gives perhaps the best brief account of the reign of Henry III. Kate Norgate, The Minority of Henry III (1912) is the fullest and most recent narrative of the early years of Henry III. Constitutional and Legal. Taylor; A. B. White; Taswell-Langmead; Stubbs, Constitutional History; Pollock and Maitland. Social, industrial, and intellectual conditions. Traill;. Bateson; Davis; Moody and Lovett; Taine; Cambridge History of Literature; Jusserand; and A. G. Little, Roger Bacon (1914). Biography. G. W. Prothero, Simon de Montfort (1877); F. S. Stevenson, Robert Grosseteste (1899), "the most complete life of Grosseteste"; M. Creighton, Historical Lectures and Addresses (1903), three brief excellent lectures on Grosseteste and his times. The Church. Wakeman; Stephens; also F. A. Gasquet, Henry III and the English Church (1905), from the Roman Catholic standpoint; and A. Jessopp, The Coming of the Friars (1890). Selections from the sources, Adams and Stephens, nos. 30-36. CHAPTER XI EDWARD I AND EDWARD II (1272–1327). THE COMPLETION OF THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE ENGLISH CONSTITUTIONAL SYSTEM Edward I (1272-1307), Accession and Early Life. Henry III had been dead for nearly two years before Edward I returned from the Holy Land, in the prime of his young manhood. The son of the pettiest of the Angevins and of a foreign mother, he seemed far from fitted to lead a people whose national and patriotic aspirations were rapidly awakening. Nor did his childhood or early youth promise much. At fifteen he was married to a foreign princess, Eleanor of Castile, and jousts, tournaments, and the pleasures of the chase caused him for a time to neglect graver occupations. The baronial revolt, however, brought him for a season under the influence of de Montfort: although his royal instincts and his affection for his father soon drew him from the ranks of revolt, he had learned lessons in military and political affairs which deeply influenced his future, and he came to be recognized as the first truly English King since the Norman Conquest. Personal Traits. Yet, in spite of his ancestry and some unpromising signs in his youth, Edward was well qualified both in mind and body to become the representative of English hopes. His fair hair and ruddy cheeks were typically Anglo-Saxon. So tall that he got the name of "Long-shanks," his commanding presence, united to skill in chivalrous exercises and military ability, were bound to impress the medieval Englishman. While prompt to resist encroachments of the Church or the Papacy, he was genuinely religious; he was devout in visiting shrines, he made vows in time of stress, and when delivered from danger and difficulty never failed to offer public thanks. Though he prided himself on his truthfulness, adopting as his motto, Pactum serva ("keep troth "), yet he was not above legal evasions when he kept the letter of his agreement at the expense of the spirit. The Subjugation of Wales (1277–1282).—The first serious problem that the King had to face was the conquest of Wales. The Celtic peoples occupying the strip of coast to the north and south of the peninsula now known as Wales had been isolated from their kinsmen and had been conquered and absorbed before the Conquest, and the Normans had set up earldoms to protect the Marches, or border, from the fierce mountaineers who remained unsubdued. During the reigns of John and Henry III, Llywelyn, and his grandson of the same name, succeeded in extending their authority over all Wales. The older Llywelyn by making common cause with the barons against John secured important concessions in Magna Carta. The younger, in alliance with Simon de Montfort, took an active part against Henry III during the Barons' war, at the close of which the English King granted him extremely liberal terms; in return for homage and an indemnity he was to be recognized as Prince of Wales and immediate lord of all the Welsh chieftains outside the limits of the Marches. However, when Edward came to the throne, Llywelyn refused to perform homage or to pay indemnity. A succession of invasions and more than five years of intermittent fighting were required during which time the unscrupulousness and brutality of English administrative officials did much to keep resistance aflame before the defeat and death in battle of Llywelyn, 1282, enabled the English King to complete the conquest of Wales. The Statute of Wales or Rhuddlan (1284). — In 1284 the Statute of Wales was issued at Rhuddlan to provide for governing the recent acquisitions, which were secured by fortresses. Wales was formally annexed to the English dominions and the English shire system was extended by the creation of four shires in the north and by the reorganization of two already established in the south. English law administered by English sheriffs was introduced, though, wherever possible, Welsh local customs were allowed to stand. In 1301 the title of Prince of Wales was conferred on Edward's oldest surviving son, born at Carnarvon in 1284. This has been the customary title of the heir apparent to the throne ever since. The French and Scotch Wars and Their Consequences. - Within a few years Edward involved himself in Scotch complications that, combined with a French war which followed, led to most significant consequences. Henceforth, English Kings were constantly interfering in Scotch affairs, a policy which threw Scotland into the arms of France and established a close association between the two countries, with a consequent French influence on Scotch manners and customs that left enduring marks. Also French intrigue so accentuated the natural hostility of the Scots that to say nothing of persistent plundering raids England had to reckon with her northern neighbors in every crisis, foreign and domestic, during the next four cen |