CHAPTER XVII.

FORMER GLACIAL EPOCHS.-REASON OF THE IMPERFECTION OF GEOLOGICAL RECORDS IN REFERENCE TO THEM.

Two Reasons why so little is known of Glacial Epochs.-Evidence of Glaciation to be found on Land-surfaces.-Where are all our ancient Land-surfaces ?The stratified Rocks consist of a Series of old Sea-bottoms.-Transformation of a Land-surface into a Sea-bottom obliterates all Traces of Glaciation.Why so little remains of the Boulder Clays of former Glacial Epochs.Records of the Glacial Epoch are fast disappearing.-Icebergs do not striate the Sea-bottom.-Mr. Campbell's Observations on the Coast of Labrador.Amount of Material transported by Icebergs much exaggerated.-Mr. Packard on the Glacial Phenomena of Labrador.-Boulder Clay the Product of Land-ice.-Palæontological Evidence.-Paucity of Life characteristic of a Glacial Period.-Warm Periods better represented by Organic Remains than cold.-Why the Climate of the Tertiary Period was supposed to be warmer than the present.-Mr. James Geikie on the Defects of Palæontological Evidence.-Conclusion.

Two Reasons why so little is known of former Glacial Epochs.If the glacial epoch resulted from the causes discussed in the foregoing chapters, then such epochs must have frequently supervened. We may, therefore, now proceed to consider what evidence there is for the former occurrence of excessive conditions of climate during previous geological ages. When we begin our inquiry, however, we soon find that the facts which have been recorded as evidence in favour of the action of ice in former geological epochs are very scanty indeed. Two obvious reasons for this may be given, namely, (1) The imperfection of the geological records themselves, and (2) the little attention hitherto paid toward researches of this kind. The notion, once so prevalent, that the climate of our earth was much warmer in the earlier geological ages than it is now, and that it has ever since been gradually becoming cooler, was wholly at variance

with the idea of former ice-periods. And this conviction of the à priori improbability of cold periods having obtained during Paleozoic and Mesozoic ages tended to prevent due attention being paid to such facts as seemed to bear upon the subject. But our limited knowledge of former glacial epochs must no doubt be attributed chiefly to the actual imperfection of the geological records. So great is this imperfection that the mere absence of direct geological evidence cannot reasonably be regarded as sufficient proof that the conclusions derived from astronomical and physical considerations regarding former ice-periods are improbable. Nor is this all. The geological records of ancient glacial conditions are not only imperfect, but, as I shall endeavour to show, this imperfection follows as a natural consequence from the principles of geology itself. There are not merely so many blanks or gaps in the records, but a reason exists in the very nature of geological evidence why such breaks in the record might reasonably be expected to occur.

Evidence of Glaciation to be found chiefly on Land-surfaces.It is on a land-surface that the principal traces of the action of ice during a glacial epoch are left, for it is there that the stones are chiefly striated, the rocks ground down, and the boulder clay formed. But where are all our ancient land-surfaces? They are not to be found. The total thickness of the stratified rocks of Great Britain is, according to Professor Ramsay, nearly fourteen miles. But from the top to the bottom of this enormous pile of deposits there is hardly a single land-surface to be detected. True patches of old land-surfaces of a local character exist, such, for example, as the dirt-beds of Portland; but, with the exception of coal-seams, every general formation from top to bottom has been accumulated under water, and none but the under-clays ever existed as a land-surface. And it is here, in such a formation, that the geologist has to collect all his information regarding the existence of former glacial epochs. The entire stratified rocks of the globe, with the exception of the coal-beds and under-clays (in neither of which would one expect to find traces of ice-action), consist almost entirely of a

series of old sea-bottoms, with here and there an occasional freshwater deposit. Bearing this in mind, what is the sort of evidence which we can now hope to find in these old seabottoms of the existence of former ice-periods?

Every geologist of course admits that the stratified rocks are not old land-surfaces, but a series of old sea-bottoms formed out of the accumulated material derived from the degradation of primeval land-surfaces. And it is true that all land-surfaces once existed as sea-bottoms; but the stratified rocks consist of a series of old sea-bottoms which never were land-surfaces. Many of them no doubt have been repeatedly above the sealevel, and may once have possessed land-surfaces; but these, with the exception of the under-clays of the various coal measures, the dirt-beds of Portland, and one or two more patches, have all been denuded away. The important bearing which this consideration has on the nature of the evidence which we can now expect to find of the existence of former glacial epochs has certainly been very much overlooked.

If we examine the matter fully we shall be led to conclude that the transformation of a land-surface into a sea-bottom will probably completely obliterate every trace of glaciation which that land-surface may once have presented. We cannot, for example, expect to meet with polished and striated stones belonging to a former land glaciation; for such stones are not carried down bodily and unchanged by our rivers and deposited in the sca. They become broken up by subaërial agencies into gravel, sand, and clay, and in this condition are transported scawards. Nor even if we supposed it possible that the stones and boulders derived from a mass of till could be carried down to sea by river-action, could we at the same time fail to admit that such stones would be deprived of all their ice-markings, and become water-worn and rounded on the way.*

Mr. James Geikie informs me that the great accumulations of gravel which occur so abundantly in the low grounds of Switzerland, and which are, undoubtedly, merely the re-arranged materials originally brought down from the Alps as till and as moraines by the glaciers during the glacial epoch, rarely or never yield a single scratched or glaciated stone. The action of the rivers escaping

Nor can we expect to find boulder clay among the stratified rocks, for boulder clay is not carried down as such and deposited in the sea, but under the influence of the denuding agents becomes broken up into soft mud, clay, sand, and gravel, as it is gradually peeled off the land and swept seawards. Patches of boulder clay may have been now and again forced into the sea by ice and eventually become covered up; but such cases are wholly exceptional, and their absence in any formation cannot fairly be adduced as a proof that that formation does not belong to a glacial period.

The only evidence of the existence of land-ice during former periods which we can reasonably expect to meet with in the stratified rocks, consists of erratic blocks which may have been transported by icebergs and dropped into the sea. But unless the glaciers of such epochs reached the sea, we could not possibly possess even this evidence. Traces in the stratified rocks of the effects of land-ice during former epochs must, in the very nature of things, be rare indeed. The only sort of evidence which, as a general rule, we may expect to detect, is the presence of large erratic blocks imbedded in strata which from their constitution have evidently been formed in still water. But this is quite enough; for it proves the existence of ice at the time the strata were being deposited as conclusively as though we saw the ice floating with the blocks upon it. This sort of evidence, when found in low latitudes, ought to be received as conclusive of the existence of former glacial epochs; and, no doubt, would have been so received had it not been for the idea that, if these blocks had been transported by ice, there ought in addition to have been found striated stones, boulder clay, and other indications of the agency of land-ice.

Of course all erratics are not necessarily transported by from the melting ice has succeeded in obliterating all trace of striæ. It is the same, he says, with the heaps of gravel and sand in the lower grounds of Sweden and Norway, Scotland and Ireland. These deposits are evidently in the first place merely the materials carried down by the swollen rivers that issued from the gradually melting ice-fields and glaciers. The stones of the gravel derived from the demolition of moraines and till, have lost all their stria and become in most cases well water-worn and rounded.

masses of ice broken from the terminal front of glaciers. The "ice foot," formed by the freezing of the sea along the coasts of the higher latitudes of Greenland, carries seawards immense quantities of blocks and débris. And again stones and boulders are frequently frozen into river-ice, and when the ice breaks up in spring are swept out to sea, and may be carried some little distance before they are dropped. But both these cases can occur only in regions where the winters are excessive; nor is it at all likely that such ice-rafts will succeed in making a long voyage. If, therefore, we could assure ourselves that the erratics occasionally met with in certain old geological formations in low latitudes were really transported from the land by an ice-foot or a raft of river-ice, we should be forced to conclude that very severe climatic conditions must have obtained in such latitudes at the time the erratics were dispersed.

The reason why we now have, comparatively speaking, so little direct evidence of the existence of former glacial periods will be more forcibly impressed upon the mind, if we reflect on how difficult it would be in a million or so of years hence to find any trace of what we now call the glacial epoch. The striated stones would by that time be all, or nearly all, disintegrated, and the till washed away and deposited in the bottom of the sea as stratified sands and clays. And when these became consolidated into rock and were raised into dry land, the only evidence that we should probably then have that there ever had been a glacial epoch would be the presence of large blocks of the older rocks, which would be found imbedded in the upraised formation. We could only infer that there had been ice at work from the fact that by no other known agency could we conceive such blocks to have been transported and dropped in a still sea.

Probably few geologists believe that during the Middle Eocene and the Upper Miocene periods our country passed through a condition of glaciation as severe as it has done during the Post-pliocene period; yet when we examine the subject carefully, we find that there is actually no just ground