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139, A) in the upper part. The Devonian cephalopods included many species of the genera Orthoceras, Cyrtoceras, Clymenia, Goniatites, and Bactrites (Fig. 139, B).

The Devonian system in Europe is subdivided as in the subjoined Table :—

Upper

Middle

Pilton and Pickwell-Down group of England - Upper Old Red
Sandstone of Scotland.

Famennian and Frasnian sandstones, shales, and limestones of the
North of France and Belgium-Psammites de Condroz.
Cypridina-shales, Spirifer sandstone, Rhynchonella cuboides beds
of Germany.

Ilfracombe and Plymouth limestones, grits, and conglomerates of
Devonshire. [No middle Old Red Sandstone.]

Limestone of Givet, and Calceola shales of North of France.
Stringocephalus - limestone of the Eifel

Calceola group of

Germany.

Linton slates and sandstones of Devon and Cornwall - Lower
Old Red Sandstone of Scotland and Wales.

Lower

Coblenzian, Taunusian, and Gedinnian rocks of the Ardennes and Taunus.

CHAPTER XX

CARBONIFEROUS

THE next great division of the Geological Record has received the name of CARBONIFEROUS, from the beds of coal (Latin Carbo) which form one of its most conspicuous features. The rocks of which it consists reach sometimes a thickness of fully 20,000 feet, and contain the chronicle of a remarkable series of geographical changes which succeeded the Devonian period. They include limestones made up in great part of corals, crinoids, polyzoa, brachiopods, and other calcareous organisms which swarmed in the clearer parts of the sea; sandstones often full of coaly streaks and remains of terrestrial plants; dark shales not infrequently charged with vegetation, and containing nodules and seams of clay-ironstone ; and seams of coal varying from less than an inch to several feet or yards in thickness, and generally resting on beds of fire-clay.

These various strata are disposed in such a way as to afford clear evidence of the physical geography of large areas of the earth's surface during the Carboniferous period. The limestones attain a thickness of sometimes several thousand feet, with hardly any intermixture of sedimentary material. They consist partly of aggregated masses of corals and coralloid animals, which grew on the sea-floor somewhat after the manner of modern coral-reefs ; partly of aggregated stems and joints of crinoids, which must have flourished in prodigious numbers on the bottom, mixed with fragments of other organisms, the whole being aggregated into sheets of solid stone. The Carboniferous or Mountain Limestone, which forms the lower part of the Carboniferous system, stretches from the west of Ireland eastwards for a distance of 750 miles, across England, Wales, Belgium, and Rhineland into Westphalia. In the basin of the Meuse it is not less than 2500 feet thick, and in Lancashire, where it attains its maximum development, it exceeds 6000 feet. Such an enormous accumulation of organic remains shows that, during the time of its deposition, a wide and clear sea extended over the centre of Europe. But as the limestone is traced northwards, it is found to diminish in thickness. Beds of sandstone, shale, and coal begin to make their appearance in it, and rapidly increase in importance, as they are followed away from the chief limestone area; while the limestone itself is at last reduced in Scotland to a few beds, each only a yard or two in thickness. From this change in the character of the rocks, the inference may be drawn that, while the sea extended from the west of Ireland eastwards into Westphalia, land lying to the north supplied sand, mud, and drifted plants, which, being scattered over the sea-floor, prevented the thick limestone from extending northwards. These detrital materials now form the masses of sandstone and shale that take the place of the limestone in the north of England and in Scotland. The northward extension of a few limestone beds full of marine organisms serves to mark a time when, for a longer or shorter interval, the water cleared, sand and mud ceased to be carried so far southward, and the corals, crinoids, and other limestone-building creatures were able to spread themselves farther over the sea-floor. But the thinness of such intercalated limestones also indicates that the intervals favourable for their formation were comparatively short, the sandy and muddy silt being once again borne southward from the land, killing off or driving away the limestone-builders and spreading new sheets of sand and mud over the site.

There can be no doubt that, while these changes were in progress, the whole wide area of deposition in Western and Central Europe was undergoing a gradual depression. The seabottom was sinking, but so slowly that the growth of limestone and the deposit of sediment probably on the whole kept pace with it. The actual depth of the water may not have varied greatly even during a subsidence of several thousand feet. That this was the case may be inferred from the structure of the limestone itself. We have seen that this rock sometimes exceeds 6000 feet in thickness. Had there been no subsidence of the sea-floor during the accumulation of so thick a mass of organic debris, it is evident that the first beds of limestone must have been begun at a depth of at least 6000 feet below the surface of the sea, and that, by the gradual increase of calcareous matter, the sea was eventually filled up to that amount, if it was not filled up entirely. But we can hardly suppose that the same kinds of organisms could live at a depth of 6000 feet and also at or near the surface. We should expect to find the organic contents of the lower parts of the limestone entirely different from those in the upper parts. But though there are differences sufficient to admit of the limestone being separated into stages, each marked by its own distinctive assemblage of fossils, the general character or facies of the organisms remains so uniform and persistent throughout, as to make it quite certain that the conditions under which the creatures lived on the bottom and built up the limestone continued with but little change during the whole time when the 6000 feet of rock were being deposited. As this could not have been the case had there been a gulf of 6000 feet to fill up, we are led to conclude that the bottom slowly subsided until its original level, on which the limestone began to form, had sunk at least 6000 feet.

This conclusion is borne out by many other considerations. Thus the sedimentary strata that replace the limestone on its northern margin are also several thousand feet thick. But from bottom to top they abound with evidence of shallow-water conditions of deposition. Their repeated alternations of sandstone, grit (even conglomerate), and shale; the presence in them of constant current-bedding; the frequent occurrence of ripplemarked and sun-cracked surfaces; the preservation of abundant remains of terrestrial vegetation-some of it evidently in its position of growth-prove that the mass of sediment was not laid down in a deep hollow of the sea-bottom, but in shallow waters not far from the margin of the land.

But probably the most interesting evidence of long-continued subsidence during the Carboniferous period is furnished by the history of the coal-seams. Coal is composed of compressed and mineralised vegetation. In Britain each layer of coal is usually underlain by a bed of fire-clay, or at least of shale, through which roots and rootlets, descending from the under surface of the coalseam, branch freely. There can be little doubt that each bed of fire-clay is an old soil, while the coal lying upon it represents the matted growth of vegetation which that soil supported. Hence the association of a fire-clay and a coal-seam furnishes distinct evidence of a terrestrial surface.1

In many regions the Carboniferous system comprises a series 1 In some Continental coal-fields there is evidence that coal has likewise been formed out of matted vegetation which has been swept down by floods and been buried under sand, gravel, and other sediment.

of sandstones, shales, and other strata, many thousands of feet in thickness, throughout which, on successive platforms, there lie hundreds of seams of coal. If each of these seams marks a

C

b

former surface of terrestrial vegetation, a how is this succession of buried landb surfaces to be accounted for? There is obviously but one solution of the problem. The area over which the coal-seams extend d must have been slowly sinking. During this subsidence, sand, mud, and silt were transported from the neighbouring land, a and in such quantity as to fill up the shallow waters. On the muddy flats thus d formed, the vegetation of the flat marshy swamps spread seaward. There may not improbably have been pauses in the downward movement, during which the maritime jungles and forests continued to flourish and to form a thick matted mass When the sub

a

C

of vegetable matter. dsidence recommenced, this mass of living band dead vegetation was carried down d beneath the water and buried under fresh deposits of sand and mud. As the weight of sediment increased, the vegetable matter would be gradually compressed and would slowly pass into coal.

b

a

C

d

a

FIG. 140. Section of part of

the Cape Breton coal-field,

showing a succession of buried trees and land-surfaces. (a) sandstones; (6) shales; (c)

But

eventually another interval of rest or of slower subsidence would allow the shallow

sea once more to be silted up. Again the marsh-loving plants from the neighbouring swampy shores would creep outward and cover the tract with a new mantle of vegetation, which, on the renewal of the downward movement, would

coal-seams; (d) under-clays be submerged and buried.

or soils.

shorter

In the successive strata of a coalfield, therefore, we are presented with the records of a prolonged period of subsidence, probably marked by longer or intervals of rest. These more stationary periods are indicated by the coal-seams, and perhaps their relative duration may be inferred from the thickness of the coal. A thick coal-bed not

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