illustrated by the sudden assemblage, without warning, of a vast meeting of 80,000 men on Clerkenwell Green and Stepney Green, on the evening of the 29th of May, when processions from all parts of London also moved by converging routes to Smithfield, and then marched along Holborn, Oxford Street, Pall Mall, the Strand, Fleet Street, Ludgate Hill, to Finsbury Square, where they dispersed. This was a demonstration arranged to test the working of the new secret organisation. Rifles and pikes began to appear in the lodgings of the Chartists. An alliance was formed with some of the turbulent leaders of the "Young Ireland" Party. Spies were swarming in every city, and a

CHARTIST AGITATION: THE POLICE FORCE ON BONNER'S FIELDS. (See p. 337.)

(Reduced, by permission, after the Engraving in "The Illustrated London News.")

Secret Committee, consisting of seven men, named Cuffey, Ritchie, Lacey, Fay, Rose, Mullins, and a man named Powell, alias Johnson, who, though pretending to be a workman, was really a professional pedestrian, known in sporting public-houses as the "Welsh Nurse," began to plot a regular insurrection. Powell joined the Committee to betray it, and his counsels breathed of fire and slaughter. Ernest Jones had by this time been imprisoned for proclaiming to a meeting that the green flag would soon wave over Downing Street; and another man had also been imprisoned-one Williams-because in a speech he had insinuated that the Government was brutalising the people by letting the police beat them with truncheons, when they came into collision with Chartist meetings on Clerkenwell Green. Whit Monday, the 12th of June, was the day fixed on for the Revolution, and on that day the Metropolitan branches of the Society were to assemble on Blackheath and Bishop Bonner's

1848.1

DISCOMFITURE OF THE "PHYSICAL FORCE" CHARTISTS.

337

Fields-meetings which were prohibited by the police as illegal. When warrants were issued for the arrest of Macdowall and the leaders, the Blackheath meeting was abandoned, and orders were given to concentrate a Chartist gathering on Bonner's Fields, so as to divert a large police force from the

City. On the evening of the 12th, the Chartists resolved to abandon the meeting on Bonner's Fields, not because the authorities at Scotland Yard prohibited it, but because it was raining, comforting themselves with the reflection that they had detained a large force of police and troops there to watch them. They were then in hopes, as Rose, one of the leaders, said to Mr. Frost, that in London by that time "they are at it hammer and tongs."*

But when the time came for striking, the conspirators were unprepared, and nothing was done. Some of the leaders-like Cuffey-now felt that it was hopeless to attempt an armed revolt, yet the forces behind them were too strong to be controlled, and they were compelled to go on when they would have drawn back. They accordingly fixed the 15th of August for the grand effort; but on that day, when waiting in the "Orange Tree" public-house, in Orange Street, Bloomsbury, they were suddenly arrested by a small body of armed police. "A sword," writes Mr. Frost, "was found under the coat of one, and the head of a pike, made to screw into a socket, under that of another. One had a pair of pistols in his pocket, and the fourth was provided with a rusty bayonet, fastened on the end of a stick. Some were without other weapons than shoemakers' knives. A pike, which no one would own, was found under a bench."

At this moment groups of surly-looking labourers were lounging in the streets and at the bars of public-houses in the Seven Dials. Suddenly a man with haggard eyes and a face pale with fear was seen to rush into the midst of a group at the corner of St. Andrew's Street, and whisper a few hurried words to a labourer, who with a pickaxe was fumbling about a loose stone in the causeway. He was then seen darting from group to group, from public-house to public-house, and very soon the police began to hover in the distance. In a few minutes the groups of loungers had almost entirely disappeared, and the public-houses were mysteriously emptied. There is reason to believe that the flag of revolution was to have been first raised in the Seven Dials, where the first barricades were to have been flung up, the spot, says Mr. Frost, who was a leading Chartist, being chosen "on account of its contiguity to Whitehall, and the facilities offered by its narrow streets, radiating in so many directions from a common centre, for a rapid advance." The pale-faced man, whose appearance was the signal for the dispersal of the loungers round the Seven Dials, was an emissary from the " Orange Tree," bringing tidings of the arrests there. Cuffey, Ritchie, Lacey, and Fay were tried for sedition, and sentenced to transportation for life. Mullins received a long term of imprisonment. Powell, the spy, instead of a handsome reward, only got a free passage to Australia, where, being an idle fellow, he did not remain long. What became of him is not known. The other spy, a constable named Mullins, was subsequently dismissed from the police force for misconduct, and after a career of crime was hanged for murdering an old woman called Elmsley, at Hackney, for the sake of a few pounds she had in her house. The Chartist organisation broke up. Its members, finding that the working classes alone could effect nothing, sensibly reverted to the programme of Mr. Sturge and the Birmingham Convention. They accordingly joined the Parliamentary Reform Association, which was launched into existence by the middle-class Radicals, under the auspices of Mr. Joseph Hume and his political associates.

1848.]

THE "YOUNG IRELAND" PARTY.

339

Writing to Baron Stockmar about the collapse of the Chartist meeting at Kennington, Prince Albert says, in one of his letters-"I hope this will read with advantage on the Continent. Ireland still looks dangerous." It had looked so 66 dangerous" at the end of 1847 that its condition, together with the commercial panic in England, had caused Parliament to be summoned in the November of that year. Now the country, under the misguidance of the "Young Irelanders," was drifting into civil war.

It is not difficult to be generous to a "lost cause," and in the " Young Ireland" movement, which ended in the disaster of '48, there is much that enlists the sympathies of liberal-minded liberty-loving men. It sprang from a reaction among the youth of the educated and literary classes, against the coarse vulgarity of O'Connell's methods of agitation. His favourite weapon was race-hatred. This he roused by passionate appeals to bitter memories of the past, when "the base, bloody, and brutal Saxon" trod the Celt under foot, tortured his priests, desecrated his altars, and proscribed his faith. The "Young Irelanders," especially after Catholic Emancipation, felt that no practical good was done to the rack-rented peasantry by denunciations of Cromwell's tyranny. Moving diatribes against Elizabethan oppression, in their opinion, did still less to reform the bad government, the weak executive, and alien bureaucracy of Ireland in the Victorian era. O'Connell's aim was to pit the Celtic Catholics against the Protestant Anglo-Irish. The "Young Ireland" Party aimed at uniting all Irish patriots, irrespective of creed or caste, in a purely political and secular movement for emancipating the peasantry from landlordism, and Ireland from English government. Sir Charles Gavan Duffy,* one of the founders of the movement, says that its leaders favoured constitutional agitation, but, if compelled to adopt stronger measures, they were ready to accept the arbitrament of the sword. Their mistake lay in committing themselves to this latter part of their programme, without possessing the means of carrying it out. When they did that, success could alone distinguish their policy from treason.

66

The Young Irelanders" were led by Thomas Osborne Davis, Charles Gavan Duffy, John Blake Dillon, and several other young men of enthusiasm and talent, and their movement was literary as well as political. They became an organised party in 1842, when the Nation newspaper was started, under Duffy's editorship-a paper, says the late Mr. P. J. Smyth,† which was "filled with a spirit of intense nationality." Its articles, political and historical, its ballads and lyrics, both pathetic and humorous, were all devoted to glorify the achievements of Irishmen in the past, or give voice to their passions, aspirations, and demands in the present. All hereditary feuds, the "Young Irelanders" said, must be forgotten. Ireland was to be Irish-not AngloIrish or Celtic. All men who loved her were to be ranked as Irishmen. Young Ireland: .: a Fragment of Irish History, by Sir C. Gavan Duffy (Cassell & Company). † Young Ireland. Fortnightly Review, December, 1880.

Hereditary party spirit they regarded, wrote Sir C. Gavan Duffy, as an ignis fatuus in a country "where the lineal descendants of the O'Neils, O'Briens, and O'Connors were Ministers, and where Philpot Curran, Wolfe Tone, and Theobald Mathew sprang from Cromwellian soldiers." The agitators were a little hazy and vague and self-contradictory as to the precise amount of

allegiance which they would yield to the Imperial Government; and Davis, in his correspondence with Daniel Owen Maddyn, rails as much at English ideasEnglish Utilitarianism, Materialism, and "Sensualism"-as at the supremacy of the Pope or Protestant ascendency. Just before the outbreak of '48, too, Mr. Smith O'Brien's avowed object, as leader of the "Young Irelanders," was to set up in Ireland an independent Republic. On the land question, however, they were sound and moderate. They demanded security of tenure, fair rents, free sale of tenant-right, and reasonable facilities for the natural growth of