extend the work of the primary schools. To meet this requirement, common to all countries, extraordinary efforts are now being put forth in France. The nature of these efforts will be seen by the summary given further on under the head of agencies complementary to the school.

THE TEACHING FORCE.

TABLE IV.-Number and classification of teachers of primary schools at speci

TABLE V.-Lay v. clerical teachers at specified dates.

TABLE VI.—Proportion of lay and of clerical teachers for the years specified.

Of the teachers employed in the public schools, 97 per cent on a total of 105,774 employed in 1897 were possessed of diplomas and 43 per cent of the highest diploma (certificat d'aptitude pédagogique). The proportion of certificated teachers in the private schools was 87 per cent on a total of 46,503.

The remarkable progress made by France in securing trained teachers for its public schools is due in great measure to the liberal provision of normal schools and the high standard at which these are maintained. Every department has complied with the law requiring the establishment of two normal schools, one for men and the other for women, or has been authorized to combine with another department for this purpose. The State shows its solicitude in this matter by the maintenance of two superior normal schools, one for men at St. Cloud, the other for women at Fontenay-aux-Roses, in which professors are trained for the primary normals. These two superior schools are really post-graduate institutions, requiring for admission either the higher diploma of pedagogy or a bachelor's degree. The following statistics show the relative status of the primary normal schools at the beginning and end of the last half decade reported:

The total number of graduates during the half decade 1888 to 1892 was, from the schools for men, 7,189; from the schools for women, 5,615. The corresponding numbers for the half decade 1893 to 1897 were, men, 6,199; women, 6,139. Total for the decade, 25,142, or an average of 2,514 annually."

EXPENDITURE.

The total expenditure for primary education in 1896-97 amounted to 214,015,250 francs ($42,803,050). This sum includes expenditure for primary normal schools and for infant schools, the current expenditure for the primary schools proper (elementary and superior) not being separately presented. On the basis of this total the expenditure per capita of enrollment in public primary schools (viz,

a The unsatisfactory status of the French teacher as regards salary and resulting social condition is set forth in the paper appended to this chapter, entitled "The professional and financial status of the French primary teachers." The spirit which pervades the professional instruction of teachers is shown by the closing lecture of the course in pedagogy at the Sorbonne, session of 1899, delivered by M. Buisson. Translation in Chapter XVI.

4,642,609, infant schools included), says M. Levasseur, is found to be 46 francs ($9.20). It is difficult to institute comparisons on this basis, because of changes in the financial administration since 1890, but this the statistician has attempted with results that are shown in the following table. These results, he explains, are not exactly comparable, but they establish beyond doubt the fact of steady increase in the per capita expenditure for public primary education.

These estimates do not include the payment of interest on the moneys advanced for school buildings. If this item were included in the estimate for 1896–97, it would raise the per capita expenditure to 56 francs ($11.20).

The expenditure for private primary schools is not known, but on the supposition that it is relatively the same as for the public schools, the total annual expenditure for primary education is estimated by M. Levasseur as 293,000,000 francs ($58,600,000), not including rents for hired buildings and interest on money invested in school property. Including these items the estimated amount is increased to 350,000,000 francs ($70,000,000).

Under the above caption are included a variety of agencies intended to promote the intellectual, industrial, and social welfare of the masses. Among the efforts of this kind in which the educational side is particularly emphasized are systematic courses of lessons for youths and adults and popular lectures conducted by teachers and professors of the regular schools. This work, fostered by the Government, has extended throughout France. In 1900 the number of courses of lessons under public auspices reached a total of 40,329 (28,536 for young

According to a recent estimate, 60,000,000 francs ($12,000,000) are annually raised for the church schools. All Catholics, even the humblest and poorest, cooperate in the work. The money "is chiefly raised by what is called 'The Sou of Christian Schools,' a widespread interdiocesan guild whose headquarters are in Paris. This guild enrolls most of the devout Catholics of France and binds them to a share in the good work. Some undertake to give a sou a week, some a sou a day. some more."

men, 12,793 for young women); private associations maintained 5,000 similar courses, making a total of 45,000 courses of lessons on various subjects, with an attendance in round numbers of 556,000 (400,000 young men and 156,000 young women).

The popular lectures numbered in the same year 25,065, while the attendance was estimated at 3,000,000. As a rule the lectures are illustrated by magic-lantern views, of which 29,000 collections were furnished by the Government for the use of the lecturers. The Ligue de l'Enseignement, a private society engaged in the work, distributed 44,986 views.

Among the efforts intended particularly to promote the social welfare of the young are the mutual-insurance societies (Petites Cavé). This work, which comprised 10 groups in 1895-96, numbered 2,017 in 1901, representing 12,000 schools and more than 500,000 pupils. The contributions amounted to nearly 3,000,000 francs ($600,000), of which 700,000 francs ($140,000) were disbursed to members on account of sickness. This relief is given, not as a charity, but as a restitution or reciprocal assistance. That part of the fund which is not used in relief is invested for the contributors and returned to them when they leave school in the proportion of their original deposits. The system has spread from the day schools to the evening classes for adults.

Many students in lycées and colleges have also been induced to join the societies, which thus tend to promote the sense of common interests among those whom fortune has separated.

In three departments needy children who have no money to deposit have been made members of the societies by contributions from public funds.

Associations of former pupils are being formed all over France for the purpose of maintaining the paternal relations begun in the schools and also of exciting the friendly interest of former pupils in those who have taken their places in the schools. These associations, familiarly known as the "Petites A," held a congress at Montpellier in 1901 which has given an immense impetus to their cause. The school patronages are associations of benevolent and public-spirited persons whose mission it is to look after school children during their holiday seasons and more particularly after they have left school. These societies seek to provide innocent amusements for the young, that may counteract the temptations of the saloon, and to find suitable employment for those who are in danger of sinking into idleness or vagabondage.

In view of these vigorous efforts on the part of the Government and the loyal supporters of the public schools, it is but just to recognize that abundant precedents for these fraternal and relief associations are found in the system of education maintained by the church. The members of the religious orders devoted to teaching have been distinguished by their solicitude for the moral good and the industrial welfare of the poor. The secular public school in its elementary form is lacking in many restraining influences which the older system threw around the young, and it is the recognition of this fact that has inspired the unusual effort on the part of the Government and the adherents of the new order of things to create new agencies to meet a great public need.

The university extension work (universités populaires) is intended not only to provide instruction, but to exercise a salutary influence upon society by bringing together citizens belonging to different classes.

The work was begun at Paris some years ago by a workingman of unusual intelligence, M. Deherme, aided by a university professor, M. Gabriel Scailles, who was devoted to an ideal of social reform. The movement spread rapidly and to-day includes 30 centers in Paris and its suburbs and more than 100 in the whole of France. These centers are becoming more and more the animating source of a propaganda of socialistic doctrines.

The expenditure for these "complementary works" is borne by private societies and by contributions from State and local funds. The contributions from the societies for this purpose amounted in 1900 to 1,250,000 francs ($250,000); from the municipalities to 2,218,000 francs ($443,600), of which sum Paris furnished 974,125 francs ($194,825); from the departments 62,500 francs ($12,500); in all, 3,530,500 francs ($756,100). The State appropriated for the work 200,000 francs ($40,000), which were expended in awards, in the form either of medals with a money prize or sums of money. These awards are bestowed upon the members of the regular teaching force in recognition of their service in the classes for adults.

By a decree of January 10, 1901, the number of medals to be awarded was fixed as follows: Fifty medals of silver, with a prize of 100 francs; 100 silver medals, with prizes of 75 francs; 400 bronze medals, with a prize of 50 francs. Fiftyeight thousand three hundred and eighteen candidates were put on the list for these awards and an official commission appointed to decide upon their relative merits.

Besides the medals, the State has awarded the following special distinctions for devotion to this cause: Eighteen "palms" of officers of public instruction; 80 "palms" of officers of academy; 619 gifts of books; 3,076 diplomas of honor; 5,405 letters of commendation.

Of the appropriation of 200,000 francs, 116,970 francs ($23,394) were divided between the departments to be awarded in sums not less than 25 francs each to teachers named by the prefects for their service in promoting the complementary courses of instruction.

The entire disposition of the 200,000 francs was as follows:

Subventions to societies engaged in the work and costs of printing

Total.....

Francs.

41,000

13,000

116, 970

3,786

8,000

17, 244

200,000