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Glasgow, where he began his efforts in behalf of the artisan class by a course of popular lectures for workingmen, but, in spite of the great interest manifested by those whom he drew around him, it soon became apparent that the want of preliminary teaching prevented them from following simple explanations of scientific processes. The interest in the mechanics' institutes gradually subsided, and if they survived they became either mere clubs or essentially teaching institutions. An example of the latter change is Birkbeck Institution of London, which celebrated its seventyseventh anniversary in 1900. Its work has become more and more systematized with the passing years, and many of its students have gained distinctions at the London University examinations. The ideas which prompted these early experiments by Dr. Birkbeck found their most powerful advocate in his friend, Lord Brougham, whose "Discourse on the objects, pleasures, and advantages of science," published by the "Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge" (itself an outcome of the new interest) presented a graphic outline of scientific knowledge as then developed, and of its practical bearings.

The awakening sense of the relations of science to industry was accompanied by a growing interest in the subject of industrial art training. This matter was brought to the attention of the House of Commons in 1835 by Mr. William Ewart, member from Liverpool, and upon his motion a select committee was appointed "to inquire into the best means of extending a knowledge of the arts and of the principles of design among the people (especially the manufacturing population) of the country." The committee, which was reappointed in the following session and reported in 1836, recommended the establishment of schools of design, and in accordance with the recommendation, in 1836, a grant of £1,500 ($7,500) was secured from the public treasury for the establishment of a normal school of design. In 1837 the school was opened in Somerset House (London) under the auspices of a council constituted by the Government. The parliamentary grant for schools of design, which was administered by the board of trade, was increased year by year, and in 1851-52 amounted to £15,055 ($75,275). Meanwhile 17 branch schools had been opened in the chief centers of industry, Manchester, Birmingham, Glasgow, Leeds, etc., and the central school at London placed in charge of a director who was subject only to the council. An investigation of these schools in 1849 by a committee of the House of Commons led to a change in their general administration. The council was abolished and a department of practical art constituted in 1852.

The movement in behalf of science and art instruction received a new impulse from the Crystal Palace Exposition of 1851, which revealed to England her inferiority in respect to many manufactures in which she had formerly led the world. It was evident that British workmen were falling back in the race from lack of the special training required by the changed conditions of industry. The lesson was not lost. The scope of the art department was at once enlarged, and in 1853 a science division was added, and the name changed to Department of Science and Art. Besides special schools of art and science maintained by the department, it was empowered to draw up examination schemes and conduct examinations for schools and classes complying with specified conditions, and to award grants to the schools on the results of the same. As the subjects included in its schedule presupposed elementary education, the influence of the department was for a time confined to secondary schools. At the outset the importance of correlating its work with that of the elementary schools seems to have been recognized, and in 1856, when a committee of the privy council was constituted to administer the annual grant for elementary education, the control of the department of science and art was transferred from the board of trade to that committee. The union thus affected was, however, merely nominal. Even after the passage of the law of 1870, the administration of the elementary schools was kept entirely distinct from that of the science and art department. As the province of the latter was extended to include the examination of pupils of elementary

schools in art and science with the award of grants for the same, friction and waste ensued. The unity of the elementary schools was impaired, while their upward extension complicated the problem of secondary education. The confusion was further increased by measures which gave educational powers to the county and city councils, namely, the law of 1889, authorizing the local councils to levy a tax (not exceeding a penny in the pound) for technical education, and the law of 1890 placing at their disposal the surplus of the liquor duties with the privilege of applying the funds to the same purpose. These complications resulted in the withdrawal of the science and art grants from the elementary schools in 1897, and the subsequent concentration of all the educational functions of the central government in a single board. In pursuance of the same policy the administration of the science and art grant for Scotland was transferred in 1898 to the Scotch Education Department, and in 1900 the corresponding grant for Ireland was transferred to the Irish Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction.

The Board of Education (England) comprises at present, besides the administration of public elementary education, the functions formerly exercised by

(1) The charity commissioners in regard to educational endowments in England and Wales (these powers include the drafting of schemes for the regulation of educational endowments and "administrative inspection, such as that of inquiring into the financial position of the school, the statutes or other regulations under which it is governed, and the powers and duties of the governing body.") a

(2) The science and art department, including the conditions to be met by schools and classes desiring to share in the science and art grants, the formulation of programmes, the conduct of examinations, and the distribution of the grant, which now amounts to nearly £2,500,000 annually.

(3) The agricultural department, i. e., the administration of special grants intended to foster instruction in agriculture.

The Board of Education is also authorized to inspect all secondary schools that apply for the service, which virtually opens up to its influence the entire province of secondary education without interfering at all with the powers respecting higher education conferred upon the county councils by the law of 1902. The similar powers conferred upon county authorities in Wales by a law of 1899 are henceforth to be exercised under the general oversight of the Board of Education.

From this brief survey of a long series of movements pertaining to education of a higher order than that given in elementary schools, it will be seen that they have been making gradually but surely for increased provision of secondary schools, variation in type, and unified control or supervision. The policies that have been adopted from time to time are due to conditions peculiar to the country, but the general course of development assimilates the movement to what has been going on in other countries.

STATE OF SECONDARY EDUCATION IN SCOTLAND AND IRELAND.

Scotland. The educational affairs of Scotland are administered by the Scotch Education Department, which has no connection with the English board. This division of the kingdom enjoys peculiar preeminence in respect to the local organization of secondary education. Elementary and secondary schools are alike managed by local elected school boards, and there is no marked line of distinction between the two grades.

In 1888 the department adopted the plan of a leaving certificate for students who on the completion of a course of secondary study should pass an examination for the certificate.

a Report of the Board of Education, 1899-1900.

The general state of secondary education in Scotland was graphically summed up in an address before the annual meeting of the Scotch Institute, as follows:

On the secular side, from the first, secondary education had been within the province of Scottish school boards, and when the crying need for technical instruction produced the act of 1887 technical instruction came to Scotland two years in advance of England, but it also came naturally and as a matter of course within the ambit and duty of the school boards. There was a confused idea in the public mind that secondary and technical education was managed by county councils, but the contrary was the fact. Such education was managed by the school boards. In Scotland the Cockerton judgment would have been impossible, and no Scottish judge would be set to solve the conundrum as to when a child was not a child. The most powerful causes of the lack of progress in secondary education in their midst were (1) the state of opinion among the working and humbler classes of the community; (2) the state of opinion among the middle and upper classes, and (3) confusion of finance and want of funds. a

Ireland. The public elementary schools of Ireland are administered by national commissioners appointed by the Government. In 1878 an Intermediate Education Board was established for the examination of the pupils of intermediate or secondary schools applying for the service, and Government grants are distributed by this board to the schools in respect of the pupils who pass the required standard. The Government has recently appointed temporary inspectors to examine the individual secondary schools and report upon their condition and requirements. It is confidently expected that some measure will be adopted as a result of this investigation which will deal comprehensively with the interest of secondary education in Ireland. STATISTICS OF SECONDARY EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

ENGLAND.

No complete summary of the statistics of secondary education has ever been made for England. We present here the latest statistics drawn from the various sources

specified.

(1) In 1897 the education department issued an inquiry to schools recognized as distinctively secondary in England (not including Wales and Monmouth County, which are under the Welsh intermediate school law).

Responses to the inquiry were received from 6,209 schools within the limitations indicated. Of these 1,958 were for boys only, 3,173 for girls, and 1,078 mixed. They enrolled 291,554 pupils, of whom 158,502 were boys and 133,042 girls. The pupils ranged in age from 8 to 19 years and over; 40.6 per cent of the boys and 45.7 per cent of the girls were under 12, which shows that a large part of the work of the schools is below secondary grade.

The following tables give in concise form the principal particulars in the return specified:

TABLE A.-Showing classification of secondary schools according to management.

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a Address by Mr. Thomas Shaw, K. C., M. P.-(Educational News (Edinburgh) January 3, 1903.) The Cockerton judgment referred to is the decision of the courts denying the right of the London school board to apply local taxes to the support of higher grade classes.

bAn estimate made in 1893 gives 600,000 as the total number of pupils under instruction in the private schools. Mr. J. J. Findlay gives 800,000 as the number of pupiis in secondary schools or pursuing secondary studies, including 25,000 instructed at home or on the Continent, and excluding the 90,000 pupils of higher board schools. It should be observed that the elementary departments of secondary schools are included in these totals.

TABLE B.-Showing the number and proportion of graduates and of nongraduates on the staffs of the various schools, inclusive of the head master or head mistress.

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TABLE C.-Showing the number of schools having on their staff nongraduates exclusively attached to the school, inclusive of the head master or head mistress.

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(2) In the official report for 1900-1901, the Board of Education present the following statements relative to the schools and classes participating in the science and art grants, together with other departments of secondary work that have come under inspection by the board. The statistics included in this presentation in some cases duplicate, as regards students, those given above, as many of the schools included in the foregoing tabulation maintain science and art classes.

During the session 1900-1901, the total number of students receiving science and art instruction under the Board of Education was 332,329, and the total number of schools or institutions in which such instruction was given was 2,288. These institutions comprise, (1) schools of science, in which scientific and general instruction is given, (2) science classes, (3) schools of art, and (4) art classes.

The grants paid in respect of the instruction given during the session, or of the examinations held at its close, amounted to £286,251 9s. Of this sum, £139,249 was paid upon attendances; £118,833 as capitation grant in schools of science; £2,687 upon the results of the annual examinations; £18,787 upon work sent up for the national competition in art, and £6,695 on account of pupil teachers and free students in art schools or classes.

The following table shows the number of students under instruction in science and art, and the amounts of grant paid, for the last ten years. It should be observed that the figures for the years previous to 1898 include those for schools in Scotland. In the year named the administration of the science and art grant for Scotland was transferred to the Scotch Education Department.

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Up to December 31, 1901, 78 schools in England and 65 schools in Wales and Monmouthshire applied for recognition under the new regulations, which offer grants to secondary day schools taking an approved scheme of instruction for a three or four years' course in science. Of the schools in England 58 were endowed schools, 6 were county or municipal schools, 9 were established by articles of association, and 5 by religious bodies. All the Welsh schools were working under the Welsh intermediate education act.

As the regulations came into force in August, 1901, none of the schools have yet completed the first year's course. It would therefore be premature to report upon their working.

With regard to the Royal College of Science, which should really be classed with universities, the board of education states:

Considerable progress has been made with the new buildings of the college. The foundations are completed, and the whole building is up to the ground-floor level, and some parts are considerably higher than this. It has been found expedient to defer certain necessary or desirable changes in the curriculum until these buildings are complete. This delay will, however, enable the new curriculum to be drawn up with reference to the arrangement of the new courses of study in the University of London, to which the college is affiliated. The entrance examination to the college will also be revised when the authorities of the university have definitely fixed their standard of matriculation. * ** During the session, 314 students were under instruction in the various divisions of the college, being a decrease of 5 from the previous session. The number of students who attended the several classes was as follows: Chemistry, 134; mathematics, 124; physics, 94; geology, 88; astronomical physics, 75; mechanics, 74; metallurgy, 56; mining, 49; biology, 20. The amount received in fees during the session was £3,244 15s., as against 3,120 4s. in the previous year. Summer courses for teachers were held as usual for about three weeks in July, 1901, on the subjects of astronomical physics, chemistry, mechanics, mining, sound, and zoology, and were attended by 177 teachers.

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In the session ending in October, 1901, there were in the college 35 students in training, 20 national scholars, 30 royal exhibitioners, 17 local scholars, and 5 local exhibitioners. Besides these, there were 103 students admitted on special qualification, making up a total of 210 students, of whom 138 were men and 72 women. The effect of the recently instituted entrance examinations is shown by the large decrease in the number of students, which was 390 in the session of 1899-1900, and 450 in that of 1898-99. Thirty-six of the students paid fees for the whole session, and seven for a portion of the session, the total receipts from fees amounting to £321 8s. as against £1,033 14s. 6d. in the session of 1899-1900, and £1,256 12s. in that of 1898-99. The effect of the more rigorous qualification now required of applicants for entrance to the college has been of considerable value in raising the whole work of the college to a higher level. Short summer courses for art teachers and students were given as usual in July, 1901; the applicants for admission to these courses were 284, and the number admitted 120.

(3) Inspection of secondary schools.-The first inspections under the board of education act, 1899, took place in the autumn of 1900, and the first report on the subject was made up to June 30, 1901, by which date 27 schools had been inspected. Between that date and December 31, 1901, the inspection of 24 schools took place. Of these, 13 schools were inspected on the application of the county authorities aiding the schools.

(4) Administration of the technical instruction acts.-A return, prepared by order of the House of Commons, dated August 2, 1901, was issued as a parliamentary paper on the 5th of August, 1902, showing the extent to which and the manner in which local authorities in England, Wales, and Ireland have devoted the residue under the local taxation (customs and excise) act, 1890, and funds raised out of the local rates, to educational purposes, during the year ended March 31, 1901.

Of the 49 county councils in England (excepting the county of Monmouth), 40 are applying the whole of the residue and 9 a part of it to technical education. Of the councils of the 62 county boroughs, 56 are applying the whole of the residue and 6 a part to technical education. Further, 2 county councils and the councils of 24 county boroughs, 99 boroughs, and 195 urban districts are making grants out of the rates under the technical instruction acts. In 28 cases, local authorities are also devoting funds to technical education out of the rates under the public libraries and

museums acts.

In Wales and Monmouth the councils of the 13 counties and 3 county boroughs are devoting the whole of the residue to intermediate and technical education, chiefly under the Welsh intermediate education act, 1889, and the councils of 12 counties

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