Landak, 15 miles N.E. of Pontianak. The gold of Sambas yields about half a million sterling annually. Excellent coal, said to be superior to that of Newcastle, is wrought in Borneo proper, Banjarmassin, and Sarawak. Valuable mines of antimony occur in the province Sarawak; while iron, tin, copper, and platina, are found in numerous localities. The flora is of the most varied and gorgeous description; but in common with the fauna, differs so little from the rest of Malaysia, that the details need not be enumerated. The orang-outang, however, is peculiar to Borneo and Sumatra, while the potamophilus barbatus, a carnivorous mammal, resembles at once the otter and ornithorhynchus. Cultivated plants embrace maize, rice, yams, batatas, cocoa-nut, tobacco, cotton, sugar-cane, betel-nut, pepper, and other spices. The inhabitants belong to four races-the aborigines, Malays, Chinese, and Europeans. The aborigines, who are named Dyaks or Dajaks on the west coast, but on other parts of the island receive the designation of the river on which they reside, are supposed to belong to the Horafores, or Arafouran variety of mankind; for, while greatly differing in physical aspect from the Malays, they considerably resemble the natives of the Celebes and of the Australian continent. Specimens of the principal dialects spoken by the numerous tribes into which the nation is divided, have been collected by Sir James Brooke and Captain Keppel, and it has been ascertained beyond a doubt that these dialects collectively form a link in the great chain of Malayo-Polynesian languages. The Malays have established themselves in great numbers on the coasts and navigable rivers, where they occupy themselves in commercial, but frequently also in piratical, pursuits. The Chinese are very industrious, and conduct exclusively the mining business of the country; while the Europeans are for the most part Dutch and English traders. The island is divided into numerous separate states, governed by native chiefs, who are nearly all subject either to England or the Netherlands. About two-thirds of the island, comprising the entire centre and south, are tributary to the Dutch, who have here two residences-viz. that of the south and east coast, capital, Banjarmassin, in the S. E., on the river Banjar, near its mouth on the Java Sea; and that of Pontianak, on the W. coast, the capital of which has the same name. The principal coal and diamond mines of Borneo are found in the vicinity of these towns. The province of Sarawak was purchased from the native chiefs by Sir James Brooke, in 1842, and formally ceded to the British government by the sultan of Borneo in the year following. The province of Borneo Proper, which extends over the level space on the N. coast, is also tributary to Great Britain. Its capital, Borneo or Bruni, formerly the metropolis of a large independent kingdom, is built on piles in the mouth of the river of same name, and contains a population of about 20,000. It was taken by the British in 1846, and the small island, Labuan, 30 miles farther N., a few months afterwards. The latter contains a colony at Victoria, has a harbour, and extensive mines of excellent coal.

The Celebes Group, including the large island Celebes, together with Panjasang, Bouton, Xulla, &c., to the S. and E. of it, is situated to the E. of Borneo, from which it is separated by the Strait of Macassar.

CELEBES, the only really important island of the group, has an area of abont 73,000 square miles, and a population of about 2,000,000. The shape is extremely irregular, the island being broken up into a series of peninsulas. The surface is greatly diversified, but is mountainous in the centre-the highest elevation of which exceeds 7000 feet in height-several volcanoes occur in the N. and S.; while in the sublimity of its scenery, it is said to surpass any other island in Malaysia. The climate is healthy and agreeable, though hot in the low grounds. Minerals comprise diamonds, gold, copper, iron, salt, and sulphur. The forests, though not extensive, contain a great variety of trees, from one of which, the badeau, the well known Macassar-oil is extracted. The trepang fishing, and the catching of turtle, occupy thousands of the natives, who consist of several races-the Horafores, in the centre, allied to the aborigines of Australia; the Bughis, on the coasts, who are a maritime commercial people, more resembling the Polynesians than the Malays; and the Badjus or "Sea Gipsies," who constantly reside in their ships, and carry on extensive commerce with China, to which they export cotton, edible birds' nests, tortoise-shell, and pearls. Celebes was discovered by the Portuguese in 1512; but in 1660 they were expelled by the Dutch, who continue to control the island. Their principal establishments are Menado, in the NE, and Macassar, near the S. W. extremity. Boni, E. of Macassar, is regarded as the native capital.

The Moluccas or Spice Islands, comprising Bouro, Amboyna, Ceram, Banda, Gilolo, &c., form a widely scattered group, lying between Celebes and New Guinea. Area, about 38,000 square miles; population, unknown, but the portion under the Dutch, in 1856, contained 536,000 inhabitants.

The Moluccas are mountainous, volcanic, subject to earthquakes, and very fertile, producing nutmegs, cloves, and other spices, fine woods, and a great variety of fruits. On the coast are numerous pearl and trepang fisheries. These islands are, for the most part, subject to the Dutch, whose chief seat of power is at Amboyna, which, next to Batavia, is the principal station of Dutch commerce in Oceania. The people consist of Malays, Papuans, Chinese, Japanese, and some Europeans.

The Sanguir or Sangir Group, consisting of an archipelago of 46 small islets, is situated in the Celebes Sea, north-west of Gilolo.

SANGUIR, the largest island in the group, contains about 250 square miles, and 12,000 inhabitants. It is mountainous, and has a volcano in the centre.

The Sooloo Archipelago, in the Celebes Sea, between Borneo and the Philippine Isles, consists of a group of above sixty islands, the principal of which is Cagayan, in the centre.

The area is about 450 square miles, and the aggregate population 200,000. They are under the authority of a native Sultan, whose capital is Soong, in Cagayan. These islands are rich in pearls and fruits; but the inhabitants, who are Malays, are noted for their piracy.

The Philippine Isles, an extensive archipelago in the extreme northeast of Malaysia, separated from Further India on the west by the Chinese Sea, and from Borneo and Celebes on the south by the Celebes Sea. Lat. 5° 32′-19° 38′ N.; lon. 117°-127° W.

The group consists of about 1200 islands and rocks, but only 408 are inhabited, of which Luzon, Mindanao, Palawan, and Mindoro, are the largest. The area and population are estimated very variously; but probably the former is about 250,000 square miles, and the latter from 5,000,000 to 6,000,000. The area of the Dutch portion amounts to 52,148 square miles, and the population to 2,679,500. The islands are of volcanic formation, and numerous active volcanoes exist in the mountainous regions. The surface is rugged, and interspersed with numerous rivers, marshes, and lakes. Being situated within the range of the monsoons, the climate is moist, and hurricanes are frequent. The high temperature and abundant moisture produce a luxurious vegetation, the character of which is not very different from that of Malaysia generally. The tobacco raised here is of the finest description, and the cigars of Manilla have obtained a wide celebrity, while sugar and rice are extensively exported. The mineral products are abundant, comprising coal, sulphur, alum, magnesia, and marble; and the fanna, which in general resembles that of the other islands of Malaysia, embraces foxes, gazelles, monkeys, and crocodiles. The aborigines are of diverse origin, but belong, for the most part, to the Malay race and the Oceanic negroes. The Tagala and eleven other dialects are spoken, while the religion is partly Mohammedan and partly heathen. Manilla or Manila, on the south-west coast of Luzon, is the capital of the Spanish possessions in the east. Its population, including the suburbs, amounts to 140,000, and its commerce with India, China, America, and Great Britain, is extensive. Selangan, in Mindanao, is the residence of a Sultan, whose authority extends over the greater part of that sland.

MICRONESIA.

Micronesia, formerly reckoned a part of Polynesia, comprises the north-east section of Oceania, consisting of the numerous groups of small islands which stud the North Pacific Ocean, from the equator to lat. 28° N., and from the Philippine Isles on the west to the Sandwich Isles on the east. Area, 10,000 sq. m.; pop., 250,000.

Except Hawaii, the largest island in this or the following subdivision of Oceania, the most considerable of the islands range from 20 to 60, or 100 miles in circumference, while many do not exceed a mile or two in length. With the same exception, they are of very moderate elevation, and either of coralline construction, or surrounded by coral reefs. The climate is salubrious and agreeable, being tempered by cool breezes from the ocean, while the vegetation is gorgeous in the extreme. The natural productions comprise the bread-fruit tree, cocoanut palm, banana, plantain, sugar-cane, taro-root, and numerous other edible roots and fruits, besides the European vegetables which have been introduced. When first visited by Europeans, these islands, in common with those of Polynesia Proper, contained no quadrupeds except hogs, dogs, and rats; but the woods contain numerous gallinaceous birds, and others of splendid plumage; while the sea teems with excellent fish, which, in some of the groups, constitute the main food of the people. The inhabitants belong almost exclusively to the Malay race, are of a dark brown colour, use little clothing, practise tattooing, and are averse to regular industry. Their religion was Polytheism, embracing a belief in a future state; and their priests, who also acted as physicians, possessed an immense influence among them, as is evidenced by the singular institution of Taboo. Whenever a priest chose to utter this word over any object, the owner was obliged to renounce all further claim to it. If his house was tabooed, he durst not again enter it. The numerous languages spoken in all the islands of Polynesia and Micronesia are to be regarded as dialects of the Malayan. Till European missionaries introduced the Gospel, the grossest barbarism, licentiousness, infanticide, and cannibalism, prevailed throughout all Micronesia and the South Sea Islands. Though they had made little progress in civilisation, agriculture of a very imperfect description was universally practised; while their skill as fishermen was extraordinary, considering that their canoes were formed without iron tools, and that their fish-hooks were made of bones, shells, or hardwood.

DIVISIONS.-Micronesia embraces the following principal groups :The Bonin Islands; Ladrone or Marianne Islands; Caroline and Pelew Islands; the Marshall or Mulgrave Archipelago, including the Gilbert group; and the Sandwich Islands.

THE BONIN ISLES, in the north-west of Micronesia, and about 500 miles southwest of Jeddo, in Japan, consist of a group of eighty-nine small islands, the largest of which are Peal and Kater Islands, at the former of which English and other Europeans, engaged in the whale fishery, are settled. The northern islands are inhabited by a Japanese colony.

THE LADRONE OR MARIANNE ISLES, a group of seventeen large and numerous small islands belonging to Spain, are situated about 1400 miles east of the Philippines. Only five of them are inhabited, which contain a population of about 10,000. They are of volcanic origin; their general aspect is beautiful and picturesque, the soil very fertile, and the productions are cotton, indigo, rice, sugar, and the plantain. The inhabitants are mostly of Spanish descent, the native races having almost disappeared. The largest island, named Guahan, is forty leagues in circuit, and contains the town Agagna, which is the capital and seat of government. They were discovered by Magalhaens in 1521, and called by him Ladrones, signifying robbers, owing to the thievish propensities of the inhabitants. THE CAROLINE AND PELEW ISLANDS, also termed the new Philippines, commence with the Pelew Islands, 550 miles east of Mindanao in the Philippines, and extend eastward over a space of about 2000 miles. They were discovered by the Spaniards in 1543, and named in honour of Charles II. of Spain. The Carolines contain several small groups, as the Pelew, Yap, Mortlock, and Duperry Isles. They are all of coralline formation except the Yap group, which is mountainous, and abounds in the precious metals. The climate is mild and agreeable, while the productions resemble those of Micronesia generally. The inhabitants are chiefly Malays, are skilful navigators, and subsist chiefly on fish and cocoa-nuts. They belong nominally to Spain, but contain no Spanish settlement.

THE MARSHALL OR MULGRAVE ARCHIPELAGO, considerably to the east of the Caroline group, consists of several distinct groups of low coral islets, about midway between Papua and the Sandwich Islands. The principal clusters are named

the Gilbert Islands, Radack Island, Ralick Island, Piscadoras, Mulgrave Island, and the Marshall Islands. The climate, productions, and inhabitants, do not differ from the rest of Micronesia. The Gilbert Islands contain about 60,000 inhabitants.

SANDWICH ISLANDS, the most important group of islands between Malaysia and the American continent, are situated about 3000 miles W. of Mexico, and about the same distance N. E. of New Guinea. Lat. 18° 50-22° 20′ N.; lon. 155-160° W. The islands are thirteen in number, but only eight are inhabited, the chief of which are Hawaii or Owyhee, Maui, Oahu, and Kanai. The area is estimated at 6000 square miles, and the population (in 1853) at 73,228. When Captain Cook discovered the islands in 1778, he estimated the population at 400,000. The causes of this extraordinary decrease are mainly measles, hooping cough, and similar diseases introduced by Europeans, and the great number of young men who leave their country in whalers and other ships, and never return. The Sandwich Islands are all high, steep, mountainous, and of volcanic formation. Hawaii, the largest of the group (4500 square miles), contains two stupendous summits-viz., Mowna Kea, 13,953 feet high, and Mowna Loa, 13,760 feet. The latter is studded with about fifty cones, from many of which smoke and flame are continually issuing. The climate is mild and salubrious, mean temperature 75° Fah. The range of the thermometer is very small, the rains are moderate, and in general the country is one of the healthiest on the globe. Gold has been discovered in Hawaii, and salt in Oahu. A good building material is obtained from the coral reefs on the west side of the group. Wheat is raised in the uplands (which, however, are better adapted for grazing than for agriculture); and in the valleys, coffee, sugar, cotton, arrow-root, cocoa, bread-fruit, and various European and West India fruits. Swine and poultry are very numerous, and horses, asses, cattle, and goats have multiplied greatly since their introduction. The natives, who belong to the light-coloured Oceanic stock, are a mild, docile, improvable race, who have very readily adopted the manners and customs of civilised life. Their language very closely resembles those of Tahiti and New Zealand. It was first reduced to a written form by the American missionaries, and contains only twelve letters-viz. five vowels and seven consonants. In 1819 the King publicly abolished idolatry, and embraced the Christian faith. Since then the Scriptures have been printed in the native tongue, churches and schools have been built, and constitutional government established. The islands are well situated for trade, being in the route between America and China, and constant communication is maintained with San Francisco. A treaty of friendship, commerce, and navigation between Her Majesty the Queen of Great Britain and the King of the Sandwich Islands, was signed at Honolulu in 1851. In 1853 the value of the imports was 1,281,000 dollars, and of the exports, 281,599 dollars. Honolulu, in the island Oahu, is the capital and principal port; population 7000. Many citizens of the United States reside in these islands, which are greatly under the guidance of American influence.

POLYNESIA, OR SOUTH-SEA ISLANDS.

Polynesia forms the S. E. part of Oceania, embracing the numerous archipelagos and islands south of the equator that lie between Australasia and the 110th degree of W. longitude. Pop. 308,000.

For an account of its general features, natural productions, race of people, religion, and languages, we refer the reader to our article on "Micronesia," the characteristics of which are almost identical with those of Polynesia.

DIVISIONS.-Beginning at the W. extremity, the following are the principal groups-the Feejee Islands; Samoa or Navigators Islands; Tonga or Friendly Islands; Hervey or Cook's Islands; Society Islands; Austral Islands; Low Archipelago; and the Marquesas.

FEEJEE ISLANDS.-A group of about 200 small islands (450 miles E. of the New Hebrides), of which only 65 are inhabited. The population is estimated at 133,000. The two largest are Ambou or Na Viti Levu, eighty-five miles long by

forty broad, and Paou or Vanoua Levu, ninety-five miles long by twenty-five broad. Some of the islands are mountainous, and all of them are supposed to be of volcanic origin. The soil is fertile, and fruits of various kinds, especially the bread-fruit, of which there are nine different varieties, and palms, are abundant. The natives are chiefly Papuans, a race which does not extend farther east; they are fierce and warlike, but possess considerable skill in domestic arts; their canoes are superior to those of most of the South-Sea islands. Many of them have been converted to Christianity, while the remainder continue to practise cannibalism and human sacrifices. The islands were discovered by Tasman in 1643. They produce sandalwood in abundance.

SAMOA OR NAVIGATORS ISLANDS, so named by Bougainville (who discovered them in 1768) from observing canoes of superior construction, dexterously managed, are situated about 450 miles N. E. of the Feejee group. Area estimated at 2650 square miles; population 60,000. They consist of eight islands, the largest of which are Savaii (700 square miles), Opolu, and Tutuila. They are mountainous and of volcanic formation, but surrounded by coral reefs. The soil is rich, the surface densely wooded, and the productions similar to those of the neighbouring groups. The inhabitants are Malays, and were very ferocious till Williams, the missionary, visited them in 1830, when many of them embraced Christianity. They are now fast advancing in civilisation.

TONGA OR FRIENDLY ISLES, S. E. of the Feejee Isles, consist of three clusters, of which the Tongataboo group is the largest. The population is about 18,000. The island Tongataboo, the most southerly of the archipelago, is 50 miles in circumference. They were discovered by Tasman in 1643, bnt received their collective name from Cook, on account of the hospitality shown him by the natives, who, however, are now known to be deceitful and treacherous. They are of the Malay race, and are copper-coloured, handsome, and brave. The first missionaries sent here were massacred, but of late years others have met with considerable success. The islands are all low and of coral formation, but contain two active volcanoes. Cocoa-nut oil is almost the only important export.

HERVEY OR COOK'S ISLANDS, E. of the Friendly Islands, embrace the scattered islands of Rarotonga, Atui, Mangeia, and several others, nearly all of them lofty and volcanic, but small and unimportant. They were discovered by Cook in 1773; but Rarotonga, the largest of them, was first made known by the missionary Williams, who laboured here with singular success. The population, who are estimated at 50,000, are of the Malay race.

SOCIETY ISLANDS, N. E. of the Hervey group, consist of about 10 conspicuous isles, all of them lofty, volcanic, fertile, and surrounded by coral reefs, against which the vast waves of the Pacific break with terrific grandeur. Tahiti, the largest of the group, contains an area of 600 square miles, while the population of the archipelago is estimated at 16,000. Tahiti, the "gem of the Pacific," is extremely beautiful, contains mountains 10,000 feet high, and clothed to the summits with a rich and luxuriant vegetation. Its principal town and port is Papiete, which is resorted to by whaling vessels; while the exports consist of pearls, pearl shell, cocoa-nut oil, sugar, and arrow-root. Tahiti was forcibly taken possession of by the French in 1846, who now claim a protectorate over this group, together with the Gambier and Wallis Islands. It was to the Society Islands that the first messengers of the Gospel to Polynesia were sent, and from their shores successive missionaries have sailed to the neighbouring isles.

THE AUSTRAL ISLES, so called from their position south of Tahiti, are lofty, fertile, and beautiful, and contain about 1000 inhabitants, who closely resemble those of the Society Isles.

THE LOW ARCHIPELAGO, E. of the Society group, consists of an immense number of coral islands, only slightly raised above the surface of the ocean, rendering the navigation intricate and perilous. The Gambier Islands, however, in the S. of the Archipelago, and Pitcairn Island, further eastward, are high and volcanic. Very few of them are inhabited, the population of the whole probably not exceeding 10,000. Pitcairn Isle is of interest as the refuge of the mutincers of the "Bounty" in 1789. That ship was conveying the bread-fruit tree from Tahiti to the West Indies when the crew mutinied, and, taking to themselves Tahitian wives, formed a settlement on Pitcairn Island. Captain Beachy visited the island