Minerals. "In a Geological point of view, Abyssinia presents the most remarkable and complex features in the world, comprising extinct volcanoes, hot springs, repositaries of sulphur, rock-salt, combustible substances, and malachite. Other minerals are granite, slate, gneiss, antimony, iron, gold, and silver. South-east of Tigré is an extensive plain, which, to the depth of two feet, is pure salt, so hard as to require to be cut with a hatchet." The iron and salt alone are turned to profitable account.

Botany. The vegetation of this country belongs in part to Schouw's twelfth and fourteenth Phyto-geographic Regions. (See p. 56.)

The forests are magnificent, and contain sycamores of great size, cedars, and beautiful specimens of the acacia. The high plateaux yield luxuriant pasturage. The coffee-plant is indigenous, and, with cotton, grows wild in the mountains. The soil of the lower grounds is extremely fertile, and furnishes, without cultivation, many of the finest vegetable productions of the torrid zone. In some places as many as three crops are produced yearly. The principal cultivated plants are teff (Poa Abyssinica), from which is made the usual bread of the people : the wheat and barley are excellent, and are found here in numerous varieties: the sugar-cane is cultivated, but is only chewed, as the art of extracting the sugar is unknown. The vine is reared in some parts, the finest grapes being met with to the east of Lake Dembea; myrrh, senna, and other medicinal plants are plentiful.

Zoology. The wild animals are numerous, and comprise the lion, panther, leopard, wolf, striped hyena, two-horned rhinoceros, elephant, hippopotamus, booted lynx, camelopard, zebra, quagga, boar, buffalo, antelope, gazelle, and monkey. Birds of all kinds abound, including the eagle, vulture, parrot, partridge, quail, and numerous species of waterfowl. Crocodiles and serpents are numerous, and some of them of great size. Bees are much cared for, and some of the provinces pay a large proportion of their tribute in honey. The ravages of the locust are terrible, and an insect called the saltsalya, a little larger than a bee, is extremely noxious. Mules, camels, and asses are the usual beasts of burden, the horses being generally reserved for war and the chase.

Ethnography.-The modern Abyssinians are a very motley group of different races, consisting of descendants from the primitive Ethiopic stock; of many Jews settled for ages in the country, and forming distinct colonies under the name Felasha ("the Exiles"); of a large population of Arabic origin; of Gallas, who have been introduced from the south, extremely barbarous; and of true negroes in a state of slavery.

Languages.-The Ethiopic or Gheez was anciently the only vernacular dialect of Abyssinia, but the Amharic and Tigré, its two modern dialects, are now the only languages spoken in the country, except the Arabic, which is spoken on the sea-coast, and the Galla, which is not of Shemitic origin, on the southern frontier. Religion. The religion of Abyssinia is for the most part a very corrupt form of Christianity. The Christian religion was established here in the fourth century, but it has long been shorn of its characteristic features. Baptism and the Lord's Supper are dispensed after the manner of the Greek Church. Mohammedanism prevails among the Arab population of Samara, and Judaism among the Jews, who are very numerous in the country. "Abyssinia is perhaps the only country in which Christianity and Mohammedanism are in contact where the professors of Islam are the more energetic and trustworthy, holding the offices which require fidelity, filling the mercantile stations, and descending to the departments of manual labour, while those who take the name of Christians are drones and beggars.'

Manufactures. The manufactures comprise leather, parchment, cotton cloths, tapestry fabricated from wool and goats' hair, and articles of iron and brass. The principal Exports are ivory, gold, slaves, cattle,

cotton cloth, mules, and honey; and the Imports, lead, tin, copper, silk, gunpowder, glass, Indian goods, Persian carpets, French cloths, and coloured skins from Egypt.

BARBARY STATES.

Boundaries.-N., the Mediterranean; W., the Atlantic; S., the Sahara; E., Egypt. Length from E. to W., 2600 miles; breadth varies from 140 to 550 miles. They extend from lat. 231° N. (Fezzan), to lat. 37° N. (Tunis), and from lon. 25° E. (Egypt), to 121° W. (Marocco). Marocco, on the central parallel, is in the same lat. as Savannah, Jerusalem, Ispahan, Lahore, and Nankin.

Area, estimated at 652,000 square miles, and the POPULATION at 15,561,003. Hence, with nearly seven times the area of the British Isles, the population is greatly less than that of England.

Political Divisions.-The Barbary States are four in number1. Tripoli, in the E., including the province Barca and the large oasis of Fezzan in the Desert, termed a beyalic, and subject to the Ottoman Porte. 2. Tunis, N.W. of Tripoli, also a beyalic of the Turkish empire. 3. Algeria, W. of Tunis, a colonial possession of France since 1830, and divided into three provinces, Constantine, Algiers, and Oran, but by the natives into the Tel or "country of grain crops, and the Beled-ul-Jered or "land of dates;" and, 4. The empire of Marocco, W. of Algeria, consisting of the kingdoms Marocco and Fez, lying between the Atlantic and Mount Atlas, and the districts Sus, Draha, Tafilet, and Sejelmessa, lying to the S. and E. of that range.

1. Tripoli.-Area, 200,000 square miles; population, 2,000,000.
BARCA.-Benghazi 5, Derna 6, Grennah (N. coast).
TRIPOLI.-Tripoli 16, Mesurata (N. coast).

FEZZAN.-Mourzouk 4, Gatrone, Suckna (an oasis).

2. Tunis. Area, 72,000 square miles; population, 2,500,000.

TUNIS 180, Cabes 30, Sfax or Sfakus 6, Monastir 12, El-Jemm, Susa 10, Kairwan 50, n., Hammamet 8, Bizarta 8 (coast).

3. Algeria.-Area, 90,000 square miles; population, 2,561,003. CONSTANTINE.-Constantine 23 (Roumel), Bona 12, Phillipville 9

(N. coast).

ALGIERS.-Algiers 52, Belida 9, n. (coast), Medeya 6, n. (Wady Shelif). ORAN.-Oran 30, Marabet, Mostaganem 9 (coast), Tremezen 14, n. (Tofna).

4. Marocco-Area, 290,000 square miles; population, 8,500,000.

FEZ.-Fez or Fas 80, Mekinez 70, n., Soforo, n. (Seboo), Tetuan 16, Ceuta 8, Peñon de Velez, Tangier 10 (N. coast), El Araish 4, Al Ksar (Al Kos), Salee or Sla 14, Rabatt 40, Mazagan (Atlantic coast).

MAROCCO PROPER.-Marocco 80 (Tensift), Saffi 12, Mogador 17, Agadir or Santa Cruz (W. coast).

BARBARY STATES,

Sus. Tarodant 21, Tedsi 15 (Sus), Messa 3, Talent (Al Messa).
DRAHA. Tatta 10 (Draha or Draw).

SEJELMESSA. Sejelmessa (Ziz or Sejelmessa).
TAFILET.-Tafilet 10 (Zaimbi).

It

Descriptive Notes.-Benghazi, a mean little town, situated among the ruins of the ancient Berenice, the fabled site of the gardens of the Hesperides. Derna (Dernis), a seaport town, once the seat of the government of Tripoli. Grennah, on the ruins of Cyrene, the ancient capital of Cyrenaica, had a fountain dedicated to Apollo, and was the birthplace of Aristippus, Callimachus, and the Christian bishop Synesius. Tripoli, properly Tripolis, capital of the beyalic of same name, derives its name from the three ancient Carthagenian cities-Sabrata, Oea, and Leptis Magna. Though of humble dimensions, it carries on an extensive Mourzouk is a small town, commerce with Central Africa by means of caravans. built of brick, in an oasis of the Sahara, noted for its rank vegetation and unhealthy climate. It is the last stage for obtaining water and provisions on the caravan-route from Tripoli to Bornou, and is the residence of a British consul. Tunis (Tunes), capital of the beyalie of same name, is the most populous city in Barbary, and, with the exception of Alexandria, the most commercial in Africa. The Bey resides in the vicinity, in a palace built in the Saracenic style. is a place of great trade, and has extensive manufactures of linen and woollen cloths, red woollen caps, marocco leather, and various celebrated essences. About ten miles to the N. E. are the ruins of ancient Carthage, once the proud rival of Rome. Cabes or Khabs (Tacapa), a seaport town which gives its name to a gulf on the E. coast of Tunis, has some export trade in dates and henna. Monastir or Mistir, a place of considerable trade, with manufactures of woollen and camlet fabrics. El Jemm (Tsydras), a ruined town containing the remains of a magnificent Roman amphitheatre, second only to those of Rome and Verona. Kairwan, a large city in a sandy plain at a considerable distance from the coast, was the first seat of Saracenic empire in Barbary; it contains the finest mosque in Africa, and is one of the holy cities of the Mohammedans. Bizerta or Benzerta (Hippozarytus), a fortified seaport town, and the most northern in Africa. Constantine (Cirta), a fortified city, was taken by the French in 1847, and is now a flourishing place, with manufactures of saddlery and other leathern goods. Bona, a fortified seaport town, which has greatly improved since it came into the posIt maintains regular steam communication with Marsession of the French. seilles, Cette, Algiers, and Tunis: near it are the ruins of Hippo Regis, once the see of St Augustine. Algiers (Arab., Al Jezair, Fr., Alger), capital of the French dominions in Africa, was seized by the French in 1830. since which it has been strongly fortified; it has now the appearance of a European city, is the residence of the Governor-General of Algeria and of many foreign consuls, and has regular steam communication with Toulon, Cette, Oran, and Bona. Oran or Wahran, capital of the most western province of Algeria, was built by the Spaniards, and is surrounded by strong walls and ditches. Tlemsen or Tremesen, has manufactures of woollen and cotton stuffs, and numerous ancient remains in its vicinity. Fez or Fas, once the capital of a powerful independent kingdom, and the finest city in Western Barbary: though now reduced to the rank of a provincial capital, it remains the holy city of the empire, and one of the three It contains, besides the university of Marocco, 360 residences of the Sultan. mosques, and numerous schools. It is the principal seat of the manufacture of marocco leather, which is prepared here in great perfection. Other manufactures are carpets, woollens, silks, jewellery, saddlery, and earthenwares. Mequines or Mekinez, one of the handsomest towns of Marocco, contains an imperial palace of great beauty and extent. Ceuta, built on a hill which was known to the ancients as one of the Pillars of Hercules (the rock of Gibraltar, just opposite, and 17 miles distant, being the other), has belonged to Spain since 1640; it is the chief of the Spanish presidios on the African coast, and the seat of a military governor. In the late war between Spain and Marocco numerous sanguinary engagements Peñon de Velez, 80 miles S. E. of Ceuta, also belongs took place near Ceuta. to Spain; it is a fortified town built on an elevated rock, and has a bomb-proof magazine, ample storehouses, and a state prison. Tangier, a strongly-fortified town on the N. coast of Fez, is the residence of a pasha and of European consuls. In 1662 it was ceded by the Portuguese to the British, who retained possession of it for 22 years. Salee or Sla, formerly noted for its piracy, is now sinking into

decay. Rabatt was formerly the centre of the European trade with Marocen; it exports wool and corn, and has manufactures of carpets. Marocco, capital of the empire, situated in the centre of an immense plain which extends to the fort of the Atlas range, is ill built, tilthy, and spacious; the walls of the city & six miles in circumference, but many large fields and open spaces strewed wit ruins are enclosed within this area. The city was founded in 1073; it contai two colleges and numerous mosques, the principal of which rises to a height of feet. Mogador, a fortified city and the principal seaport of Marocco, maintain regular communication with Southern Europe. Tatta, a great depôt for th transit trade between Marocco and Central Africa. Segelmessa, celebrated fr its fine dates. Tafilet or Tafilelt, capital of a district in the S.E., which is use as a place of banishment for political offenders.

Capes. (See under "Africa," art. 7.)

Islands. Jerbah and Karkenah, E. of Tunis; Peñon-de-Velez, N.E of Fez.

Jerbah, called by the ancients Lotophagitis, was celebrated as the abode of the Lotophagi, or eaters of the lotus, a delightful fruit, said to have been so into cating that whoever partook of it forgot his own country, and wished to spend ba life in the happy region where it was produced. It is still found on the whứ of this coast, is in great repute, and sold in all the markets under the name d jujeb. It resembles the date in taste, is of a saffron colour, not larger than a bea and grows in bunches like the myrtle-berry.

Gulfs and Straits. (See under "Africa," par. 9.)

Mountain System.-The Atlas range extends through the entire lenth of Barbary, from Barca on the E. to Cape Nun in Marocco, and separates the great basin of the Mediterranean from the Sahara. It increases in elevation from E. to W., being in the S. of Tripoli only 2000 feet high: in Tunis, 4476 feet; in Algeria, 7673 feet; while in Marocco, Monst Miltsin attains an elevation of 11,400 feet, and Jebel Tedla to upwards of 13,000 feet, or above the line of perpetual snow.

Several secondary chains detach themselves from the main range and purst? different directions; one proceeds northward, and terminates at the Straits of G raltar; and others, leaving the main range in the S. of Tripoli, extend into the Sahara and Desert of Libya.

Rivers. Owing to the proximity of the Atlas range, on the one hand to the Mediterranean, and on the other to the Great Desert, the rivers of Barbary are all comparatively small. The greater number of them are little more than winter torrents, the channels of which are dry during summer; while those which flow southward soon lose themselves in the sands of the Sahara, or terminate in salt lakes. The only rivers deserving notice are the following:

The Medjerda (Bagradas) in Tunis, flows N. E. 200 miles, and empties itself into the Gulf of Tunis. The Sebus, Roumel, Masond, Isser, Shelif, Habrah, and Tofna, all flow N. through Algeria into the Mediterranean. The Mahala or Mulwiah, the principal river of Barbary, flows N. E. through Marocco into the Gulf of Melilah. The Al Kos, Seboo, Bu-Regreb, Omer Begh, Tensift, Sus, and Non, flow W. through Marocco into the Atlantic. The Jidi, in Algeria, flows S. E. into Lake Melgig; the Jinen, eastward into Lake Al Shot; while the Ghir, Zis, and Draha, in Marocco, flow S. and lose themselves in the sand.

Lakes.-Al-Sibkah, a great salt marsh in the S. W. of Tunis; Lagoon of Tunis and Lake Benzart, in the N. of Tunis; Shott-el-Melrir, Zagos, and Sherqui, salt lakes in the S. of Algeria; Sebkah, in the N. W. of Algeria. Climate. The climate of North Barbary is temperate, the country being protected from the hot winds of the desert by the high ridges of Mount Atlas, and at the same time exposed to the cool sea-breezes. S. of the Atlas range the climate is tropical and the heat intense. Rain is frequent in winter, less copious during spring, and rarely seen in sum

mer.

Minerals.-Iron, copper, and lead are abundant in Algeria, especially in the province Oran, where cinnabar or sulphuret of mercury is obtained in small quantities, besides extensive mines of nitre, salt, tale, and potters' clay. In Marocco the precious metals are confined to the province Sus, the principal silver mine being situated 150 miles S. W. of the capital. The khol, or antimony ore, used by Moorish ladies in painting the eyebrows, is obtained from Tedlar; while amethysts of great size and beauty are found in the recesses of the mountains. The Atlas Range contains copper, iron, lead, antimony, and rock-salt; but few mines are wrought to advantage.

Botany. The whole of Barbary is included within Schouw's third Phyto-geographic or Mediterranean Region. (See under "Europe," art. 18.)

The northern slopes of Mount Atlas are clothed with dense forests of pine, oak, cork, white poplar, and wild olives. On the southern slope the lower ranges are covered with palm-trees, especially the date-palm, of which this is the true native region, whence it is denominated by the natives Beled-el-Jered, or "land of dates;" higher up grow gum-trees, almonds, olives, &c. ; while on the table-lands are found pears, apples, cherries, and other European fruits. The lotus and cassob are indigeneous in Tripoli. The principal cultivated plants are wheat, maize, barley, millet, sorghum, tobacco, cotton, indigo, sugar-cane, henna, and saffron; with olives, dates, grapes, and the fruits of Southern Europe. The soil in the valleys has been always celebrated for its fertility, and in some places yields three crops of corn in the year; but so little is agriculture understood that large crops of corn are sometimes allowed to remain unreaped, while at other times many of the inhabitants die of famine.

Zoology. The animal kingdom comprises most of the species found in the rest of Africa, except the hippopotamus, rhinoceros, giraffe, zebra, and several species of monkeys. (See under " Africa," art. 17.)

The principal mammals are the Barbary ape, little baboon, panther, lynx, jackal, genet, Barbary squirrel, Barbary mouse, Barbary antelope, Marocco antelope, bearded sheep, the bubalis (a species of buffalo), wild-boar, and the Egyptian jerboa. The Atlas Mountains are infested by large fierce lions, and abound in antelopes, monkeys, and porcupines. In general the Mammalia differ widely from those of Europe; while, in regard to Birds, besides several found in Southern Europe, Barbary possesses numerous species not occurring in any part of the northern continent. The Reptiles comprise the chameleon and leathery turtle. Among Domestic Animals may be mentioned the horse, camel, dromedary, ass, mule, buffalo, ox, merino sheep, and goats. The Barbary horses are superb animals, vieing with the Arabian in beauty of form, though not, perhaps, in fleetness. The dromedary is the most general beast of burden.

Ethnography. The inhabitants belong almost entirely to the SyroArabian stock, but consist of three distinct nations-the Berbers, Moors, and Arabs. (See under " Africa," art. 18.)

The Berber Language forms a connecting-link between the Shemitic and African familes. Some of the tribes employ the ancient Libyan alphabet of their forefathers, but the Arabic letters are more generally used both in writing and printing. The Moors and Arabs speak a dialect of Arabic called the Mongrebin, or Moorish Arabic. Islamism is the sole religion of the Berbers, Moors, Turks, and Arabs. The negroes, who are very numerous, and mostly slaves, are generally pagans, Soudan being their native country.