Lakes. Nearly all the lakes of Chinese Tartary are comprised within the great central basin of continental streams. They have no outlet, and their waters are salt or brackish. The principal of them are the following, beginning at the N.W. and proceeding eastward :- Balkash or Tenghiz, between Chinese Turkestan and the Russian government Tomsk, receives the Ili, &c. Temortou or Tuz Gul, 100 miles S. of Lake Balkash; Alaktou-kul and Alakoul, farther E., are united by several channels, and the former has an extinct volcano in its centre; Kessel. Bashi, near the source of the Irtish; Ike Aral, N.E. of Kessel-Bashi, receives the Djabekan and Kobdo; Oubsa, N.E. of Ike-Aral; Lob-nor or Lop-nor, S. of the Thian Shan mountains. Zaisan, near the source of the Irtish, is not included in the continental basin. Climate. In so wide a region the climate must be highly varied, but few data exist to speak of it with precision. It is, however, much colder in winter and warmer in summer than France and other countries in corresponding latitudes of Western Europe. Scarcely any rain falls in the great desert, and the few oases that occur afford but a scanty vegetation. The Minerals, Botany, and Zoology are almost wholly unknown. Gold, iron, tin, jade, jasper, and other precious stones are met with. Pines, fir, birch, ash, elm, and white poplar, grow in the mountains; as also red currants, wild peaches, and various shrubs. Mantchooria is one of the chief localities whence the Chinese obtain the wonder-working ginseng-a species of ivy, the root of which is used as a stimulant and here rhubarb is extensively cultivated. The cork-tree and the aspen are indigenous on both banks of the Amoor. Among wild animals may be mentioned the tiger, wolf, jackal, lynx, fox, antelope, argal, yak, in Chinese Turkestan; wild horses, camels, and asses in the stony steppes of the Lop desert; the Bactrian or two-humped camel, in the Thian Shan mountains; and boars, bears, wolves, hares, foxes, sables, squirrels, &c., in the forests of Mongolia. Ethnography.--This country has been for ages the domain of the Mongolian race- -one of the great subdivisions of the human family; to it belonged Attila, Genghis Khan, Kublai Khan, Timur the Tartar, and those other mighty warriors, whose rapid conquests are compared by Gibbon to the primitive convulsions of nature, which have agitated and altered the surface of the globe. They are allied to the Turks and Chinese, and are subdivided into numerous tribes, the principal of which are the Mongolians Proper, Calmucks, Khalkas, and Mantchoos. While Mantchooria has become an integral part of the Chinese empire, China itself has been governed by a dynasty of Mantchoo princes since 1624. All the Languages spoken in Chinese Tartary belong to the Turanian or FinnoTartarian family (see under " Asia," art. 21, and at p. 399). The chief of them are the Mantchoorian, Mongolian, and Corean. The elemental principles of the first two are almost identical with the Tartar and Finnish. In the simplicity of their structure and the total absence of all inflections, properly so called, they approach nearer than any other class of languages to the monosyllabic type. The Corean greatly resembles the Japanese, but many Chinese words enter into its composition, Corea having received its literature and civilisation from China; but the alphabet is phonetic, and not symbolic, like the Chinese. The Religion of Buddha prevails in Mantehooria and Mongolia; Buddhism and Mohammedanism in Chinese Turkestan (where are also found some Christians and Jews); and Buddhism and Confucianism in Corea. THE CHINESE EMPIRE. TIBET, OR THIBET. Boundaries.-N., Chinese Tartary; W., Kundooz and Gholab Singh's dominions; S., the Himalaya and Burmah; and E., China. Lat. 27° 36° N., lon. 78°-104° E. Lassa, the capital, on the central meridian, is in the same latitude with Mogadore, Cairo, Bassorah, Mooltan, Shanghae, and New Orleans. Area and Population. The area is conjectured to be about 693,000 square miles, or more than five times the area of the British Isles. The population is probably about 6,000,000, or less than that of Ireland. Surface. A lofty table-land, from 10,000 to 14,000 feet in elevation, enclosed by stupendous mountain-chains, the loftiest on the globe, and giving origin to nearly all the great rivers of Southern Asia-as the Indus, Sutlej, Jumna, Ganges, San-po or Brahmapootra, Irrawaddy, and Yang-tse-kiang. Divisions. The portion subject to China is understood to comprise two provinces-viz., Eastern and Western Tibet-of which Bultistan Lassa and Teshoo-Loomboo are respectively the capitals. or Little Tibet, and Ladakh, are now tributary to Cashmere. These, together with Bhotan, which is partly tributary to Tibet and partly independent, are treated of under "Hindostan." TOWNS.-LASSA 50 (Mouran, afft. San-po), Jiga-Gungar 100, Shigatze or Jikadaze, 100, Teshoo-Loomboo 20, n. (San-po), Tashigong, Gardikh or Gortopé (Indus), Chaprung, Toling, Daba (Sutlej), Bathan or Pa (Kin-cha or Upper Yang-tse-kiang), Tsiamdo (Me-kiang). Descriptive Notes.-Lassa or H'Lassa, the capital of Tibet, and the sacred capital of all Buddhistic countries, is a fortified commercial town, containing a Chinese viceroy and garrison, with numerous towers, bazaars, and temples; it is the residence of the Grand or Dalai Lama, the pontifical sovereign of Tibet, who lives in a vast square temple, which, with its precincts, covers many acres, and has contiguous to it four celebrated monasteries, said to be inhabited by 4000 recluses. These monasteries are greatly resorted to by the Chinese and Mongols, as schools of the Buddhic religion and philosophy: the interior of the temple is filled with idols, treasure, and works of art; and there is perhaps no spot on the globe where so much gold is accumulated for superstitious purposes. TeshooLoomboo or Chash-lo-um-boo, the western capital, contains the palace of a lama and the residence of a Chinese functionary, whose duty is to watch the proceedings of the priests, who constitute the great bulk of the population. Lakes.-Koko-nor and Tcharin-nor, near the sources of the HoangHo; Tengri-nor, 80 miles by 40, and Paltee, in the basin of the Brahmapootra, but having no outlet; Rhawan-Rhad, 15,000 feet above the sea, and Mansarowar, at the source of the Sutlej. Nearly all the lakes are brackish. Climate. The climate is excessively dry, and its effect on vegetation resembles that of the dry heat of the Sahara. The trees wither; their leaves may be ground to powder between the fingers; planks and beams break, and the inhabitants cover the timbers of their houses with wet towels, in order to preserve them from the destructive effects of excessive dryness. The timber never rots. The flesh of sheep exposed to the open air becomes dry, and may be ground like bread, and thus preserved for years. This flesh-bread is a very common food in Tibet. Goître, syphilis, ophthalmia, hydrophobia, and small-pox, are among the most pre valent diseases. The limit of perpetual snow is higher on the Tibetan side of the Himalaya than on the Indian; the former varying in different places from 16,600 to 18,000 feet above the sea, while in the latter it descends sometimes to less than 13,000 feet. Barley comes to maturity from 14,000 to 15,000 feet above the sea-level; wheat succeeds well as high as 12,000 feet; birch to above 14,000 feet; and small bushes to 17,000 feet-being nearly 1300 feet higher than the limit of perpetual snow under the equator. Minerals.Tibet is extremely rich in minerals, especially in gold, which is found in lumps, veins, and in the sands of the rivers. Silver, mercury, native cinnabar, iron, and rock-salt, are obtained from mines; but the want of fuel is an insuperable obstacle to their successful operation-coal being unknown, and there being little or no wood in the country. Lapis-lazuli, turquoises, borax, and nitre, are found in great abundance. Botany. The vegetation is extremely scanty. Forest-trees are rare, but the cedar is found on the mountains, and several orchard-fruits in the valley of the Mouran, including grapes, figs, pomegranates, peaches, apples, apricots, and nuts. Many of the grasses common in Europe are found; but very little wheat, and less rice, is cultivated. Buckwheat is raised successfully, but grey or black barley is the principal grain cultivated, and the chief article of diet. Zoology. Among the animals may be mentioned the yak or grunting ox and the musk-deer (both of which appear to be aboriginal to the country), wild-ox, buffalo, goat, wild-cat, tiger, leopard, lynx, bear, badger, and the argal with horns of 100 lb. weight. All our domestic animals are known in Tibet; but the one most used as a beast of burden is the bhoral, a large sheep covered with long hair. Fish are abundant in the rivers, but are prohibited from being eaten by the Buddhist religion. Ethnography.-The Tibetans belong to the Mongolian race, and, like the Mongols Proper, were at first divided into many independent tribes, who followed a nomadic life. The practice of polyandry is commonone woman becoming the wife of all the brothers in a family. Their Language, sometimes called Tibetan, and sometimes Bhotanta-because spoken also in Bhotan-belongs to the monosyllabic family, though not a few polysyllables exist in it. It bears a great resemblance to the Chinese-some of its roots, and nearly all the derivatives, being clearly traceable to that language. The alphabet, however, is phonetic; reads from left to right, and is without doubt borrowed from the Sanscrit. Buddhism was introduced into Tibet about A. D. 367, and that country has for ages been the home and headquarters of the Buddhist faith. Under the name of Lamaism it still exists here in its primitive purity; while the Grand Lama or Supreme Pontiff is regarded as an incarnation of Buddha. He is a temporal as well as a spiritual sovereign; the country abounds with temples, and 80,000 lamas or priests are maintained by the state. The numerous rites and ceremonies are said to bear a most remarkable resemblance to those of the Romish Church. Commerce, &c.-Tibet became subject to China in 1648, and is now ruled by viceroys from Pekin, in conjunction with the ecclesiastical heads of the country. Manufactures of woollens, sacking, and other woven fabrics are pretty general, and much cloth is sent from Lassa into China. The Traffic through Tibet is extensive, though the roads and bridges are far inferior to those of China. It is for the most part monopolised by the Government and officers of state. Nepaul and Bhotan derive all their Chinese goods through Tibet. Table of Rivers and Towns.-The following Table shows in detail the River System of China and the east part of Chinese Tartary. All the basins incline to the Pacific Ocean : Yang-tse-Kiang, Ching - Kiang, Kan - Kiang and Lake Po-Yang, Yang chow, n., NANKIN, chow, n., Ki ngan, Kan-chow, Nan-ngan. Shang-Yaou, Quang-sin. Yu-ho, ....Lin-kiang, Yooen chow. Sun-y, n., YANG, n., Tai-ting, Ching-hiang. Kia-ling, ....Chun-king, Poo-kiang, Long-gan. Min-Kiang, ..Sioo-chow,CHING-TOO. and Lake, Kin-sha,......Ho-king, Yoong-pe, Likiang, Bathan (in Ta-choong, Yoong-ning. Hoang-ho orYel- Hwai - ngan, Quei -te, low River, Hoai-ho,. Wei-ho,...... n, KAIFONG, Hoai king, Ho-nan, Sopin, n., KoukouKota, n. (in Mongolia), LAN-CHOW. .Fong-yang, Lioo-chow, n., Hing-chow, Yooning. SI-NGAN, Fung-siang, Hooan-ho, Kin-yang. Fuen-ho, .... .Pin-yang, Fuen-chow, TAI-YUEN. G. of Pe-chi-li,...Teng-chow, Lai-chow, TURKESTAN, OR INDEPENDENT TARTARY. Boundaries.-N., Siberia and European Russia; W., river Ural and Caspian Sea; S., Persia, Afghanistan, and the Punjab; E., Tibet and Chinese Turkestan, from which it is separated by the Bolor-Tagh mountains. The latitude extends from 35° to 54° N., and the longitude from 51° to 74° E. Tashkend, on the central parallel, has the same latitude as Bordeaux, Turin, Belgrade, Bucharest, Georgievsk, Kirin-Oula, Kingston, and Halifax. Area and Population.-The area is estimated at 720,000 square miles, and the population at 6,000,000-being six times the area of the British Isles, with a population less than that of Ireland. Surface. The surface consists for the most part of an immense plain, which from all sides slopes towards the Sea of Aral, and forms a continuation of the great Siberian plain, from which it is only partially separated by a low chain of hills that connect the Urals with the Altai. A large portion of this plain, including the Caspian, is considerably beneath the level of the Black Sea, and probably formed the bed of the ocean in a remote age. The S.E. part of Turkestan consists of a part of the lofty plain of Pamir, 15,600 feet high. Here are many well-watered and highly fertile valleys, but in general the country is extremely sterile. Political Divisions.-Turkestan consists of a number of independent states, or khanats, as they are called, the principal of which are the following: KAFIRISTAN.-Caundeish 3, n., Chittral 4 (Kamah, affl. Cabool), Khawak (Punjsheer), Farajghan (Tagoo), Gilgit (Gilgit). KUNDUZ.-Kunduz 5 (Bunghee, af. Amoo), Khooloom or TashKurghan, 10 (Khooloom), Budakshan (Budakshan). BOKHARA (including Balkh).—Bokhara 160, Samarcand 10 (Kohik), Kurshee 10, Kesh or Shehri-zoubs (Kurshee), Charjooee 5, Tirmez (Amoo), Balkh 2 (Adersiah), Hissar (Kafirnihun), Uratepeh 10 (Sagd). KHOKAN.-Khokan 100, Otrar, Turkestan, n., Tunkat, Tashkend 40, Khojend 50, Marghilan, n., Usch or Taght-i-Soleiman (Daria). KHIVA, or KHARESM.-Khiva 10, n., Urgenj 3, Kungrad 10 (Amoo), Merv 3 (Muhrgaub), Shurukhs 10 (Tejend). KIRGHIZ STEPPE.-No towns. Descriptive Notes.-Caundeish, the principal village of Kafiristan or "land of the Kafirs or infidels," the name given to this region by their Mohammedan neighbours, who hold them in the greatest abhorrence. The inhabitants are a remarkable race, greatly resembling the Caucasian in their features, language, and manners; and claim to be brothers of the Feringhi, or Europeans. They live in a rude and primitive state, but exhibit great skill in working metals, and in other arts, |