high school has already given an impetus to the common schools throughout the county by offering an incentive to continue study, and indirectly will react upon the pupils of the county by furnishing better educated and better trained teachers for our rural schools. It places the opportunity for a thorough practical education within the reach of every boy and girl in the county."

Principal Homer S. Myers, of the Dickinson County High School: "The school has done great things for the teachers of the county and for the upbuilding of an educational sentiment generally. There are here one hundred and fifty pupils who would not have attended a high school where tuition was charged."

Thomas County: "The county high school proposition met considerable opposition at the time it was brought up, but that has vanished. I know of no man or woman now who is not a friend of the school."

Carlyle undoubtedly had in mind the country scholar remote from educational facilities when he said, "This I consider a great tragedy; that one soul should remain in ignorance that had capacity for higher things." When the county high school prevails is it not possible that such tragedies will be of less frequent occurrence?

What are Sun Spots ?

NORMAN H. CROWELL, SIOUX RAPIDS, IOWA

'HILE the press is directing the public eye toward the dark blots on the sun's face, and calling attention to the effects on weather and other terrestrial phenomena supposed to be produced thereby, we may profitably spend a moment's time on the, as

yet, unsatisfied query, "What are sun spots?"

It

A sun spot presents the appearance of an irregular opaque body interposed between the earth and the disk of the sun. is distinguished from such, however, by its path of travel as well as the different apparent speeds as it crosses the visible surface of the sun.

Found almost invariably in a zone not exceeding twenty-five degrees on either side of the sun's equator, the sun spot is first seen entering at the sun's eastern limb. It advances steadily toward the western limb in a slightly oval course, due to the inclination of the sun's axis to the ecliptic. At first it appears to travel slowly for the reason that it is advancing practically straight toward the observer. Presently, upon swinging into the broad central field of the sun, its speed accelerates, until later, when upon its retreat down the sun's western limb, it is again apparently retarded.

The great spot of Decemlimb, was seen as a very Spots vary greatly in size,

Astronomers agree that a sun spot, whatever else it may be, is a depression in the sun's surface. ber, 1819, when rounding the sun's noticeable notch in the sun's disk. ranging from insignificant specks a few hundred miles across to their formidable brethren of thirty to sixty thousand miles in diameter. Groups of spots sometimes coalesce, forming a common penumbra embracing a giant tract fully a hundred and forty thousand miles from brink to brink.

These phenomena, happily, are of fleeting existence, six weeks' time being a ripe age for the most persistent spot. This period, we may add, is by no means decisive, spots having been observed to cross the sun's disk six to eight times, each

crossing representing a complete journey around the sun's sphere, a circle requiring a period of about twenty-seven days.

In astronomical language a sun spot consists of two parts, an umbra and a penumbra. The umbra is the black central part, the penumbra the more luminous striated zone surrounding the umbra and connecting it with the outer fiery surface of the sun. Photographed the spot resembles a jagged bullet hole in the sun's surface-an inky hole circled by a gray streaky band. Photometric results demonstrate that the black hole or umbra is only comparatively dark; in reality it is more intensely brilliant than a calcium light.

Opinions as to what a sun spot really is vary as there are astronomers to advance them. In any of several current theories may lie the real character of these huge saucer-shaped cavities. I enumerate five :

(1) Eruptions or explosions on the sun's surface, of which the spot is the visible "crater."

(2) Hollows or valleys in the photosphere into which cooler and darker gases or vapors collect.

(3) Punctures caused by solid foreign bodies passing into the sun's mass.

(4) Comparatively dark inner stratum of the sun seen through the attenuated regions of the outer luminous surface.

(5) Irregularities in a "cloudy stratum" supposed to lie between an inner denser surface and the outer visible disk.

These reasons generally have as a basis a presupposed idea of the nature of the sun itself. Says the astronomer, "The sun is a hot, self-luminous globe." What makes it hot? What makes it luminous? Why does it retain its heat and luminosity without perceptible change or waste?

Let us treat momentarily on the sun.

Five current theories

account for its heat and light. They are:

(1) Conflagration.

(2) Shrinkage.

(3) Molten mass.

(4) Falling bodies.

(5) Electricity.

The first argues an interminable supply of oxygen, which

alone is fatal to its plausibility were it not that the inconceivable volumes of smoke or other residue would certainly darken all space about the sun.

In the second a diminution of diameter sufficient to produce the unceasing stupendous heat of the sun has not been detected by the most painstaking calculations.

Reason third falls on the fact that molten masses cool first from the outer surface inward. No molten mass, however large, surrounded by space wherein absolute zero reigns supreme, can retain its initial brilliancy for almost imponderable periods of time.

The fourth theory lacks in mechanical accuracy. The sun's heat is equal to the task of dissipating a solid cylinder of ice forty-four miles in diameter and one hundred and eighty-six thousand miles in length each second of time. Whence, then, comes the immeasurable supply of foreign matter which must impact each moment upon the sun's surface to produce this heat? It is not daring to state that such an amount of material surrounding the sun must effectually block its rays from the solar system.

At the last reason we may pause. Electric fluid, so far as we know it, possesses the qualities of producing heat and light without appreciable waste or loss. Can we reconcile it to the phenomena of the sun? Try figures.

The diameter of the earth in round numbers is 8,000 miles, that of the sun, 882,000 miles. Considering the earth's bulk (i. e., size) as I, that of the sun is 1,380,000. In mass, or total constituent matter, the sun exceeds the earth only 332,000 times.

With mass so small as compared with bulk the sun's density must be insignificant as measured by the earth's density. In reality, it is about a quarter as dense as the earth. Now, as the earth is five and one half times as dense as water, it follows that the sun, considered as a whole, must be only about one and a half times the density of water.

Having ascertained these facts, various claimants state that the sun must be merely a huge ball of enormously high-temperatured cloud, gas or vapor, and as such, being necessarily in constant and violent ebullition, the sun spot is simply the burst

ing bubble which pushes to the surface, the inconceivable contents of which retains its being until overwhelmed by the tremendous heat surrounding it.

But the sun totals heavier than an equal mass of water, and gas, vapor or cloud are commonly presumed to fall far short of water in weight or density.

From observations of the corona during eclipses, and studies of the rose-colored projections frequently observed (notably on July 7, 1842), it is agreed among eminent astronomers that the visible surface of the sun consists of matter of the most excessive tenuity. How deep lies this attenuated layer of gas, cloud or vapor it is impracticable to hazard, but it gives firm ground to the belief that the sun becomes rapidly more compact as the central portions are approached.

From this we predicate than the inner sun is cooler than its blazing exterior, else it, too, would be of similar tenuity, and the solid rock of the specific gravity theory be wafted away on the wings of air.

Assume the gaseous outer layer to be 300,000 miles in thickness, swathing a dense, comparatively cool, nucleus 282,000 miles in diameter. What, now, furnishes the superlative heat and light given off by the outer layer? Is it due to an original heat still seething through its ethereal regions? Does friction cause it?

Think of a slab of honeycombed ice. Imagine the vertical fibrous pencils" to be streams of electric fluid 300,000 miles in length. Imagine the tiny white bubble at the top of the pencils a hot, sizzling arc-lamp end of an electric current hundreds of miles in diameter. Imagine the whole vast layer close woven with electric streams moved to and fro in waves or undulations.

Is it not possible that the rapid and constant discharge of this stupendous electric store creates the magnificent sheet of light that throws down to Mother Earth her sunshine? Would not the unlimited heat generated possess the energy that reaches us as grateful warmth?

And then, would not a slanting view of these giant electric flashes, due to a chance funneling of the undulatory currents,