as apprehension and comprehension - hereafter noticed-it seems to me, sufficient to warrant a separate consideration.

2. It is also regarded as the investigating power. Like the bee in search of honey, penetrating the depths of the flower, emerging therefrom laden with spoils, and all aglow with the investments of flower dust; so the mind, through the united activity of its powers, penetrates the very substance and soul of truth, and returns not less glorified with investments and laden with the richer spoils of knowledge.

3. Its two general processes may be stated as follows:

a. Apprehension = ad (changed to ap), meaning to or towards, pre meaning before, and hendere, to seize, all meaning, literally, to lay hold upon, or seize beforehand, and in this case, to lay hold upon knowledge in mindfor the purpose of further investigation and clearer understanding; and

b. Comprehension, which simply changes the first prefix ad to con or com, meaning a closer relation, as together, with, etc., conveying the idea of a more complete and permanent possession of the concept and knowledge of the truth and its relations.

4. The whole process might be illustrated as follows:

As the eagle first seizes upon its prey (apprehends it), and then proceeds to some safe retreat where he devours it (comprehends it), puts himself on the outside of it, so to speak, makes it a part of himself; so the mind in pursuit of knowledge, or in the process of complete thinking, understanding, first seizes upon a truth or proposition (apprehension) and then proceeds more leisurely to investigate, to analyze and comprehend it (devour it) until it becomes a part of the mental furniture, just as food becomes a part of the body.

NOTE. This becomes a true test in teaching. Too many pupils rest satisfied with mere apprehension, holding, as it were, the truth in the claw of memory, being satisfied to say rather than to know and do.

DEFINITION XIII

Judgment, as a faculty of the mind, is the power it has to form conclusions and decisions upon any subject of thought, usually based upon evidence or testimony requiring the use of

comparison and discrimination as helps to conclusions; and to express facts and general truths in some systematic form.

REMARKS AND ILLUSTRATIONS

1. JUDGMENT, as an act or process of the mind, is the formation of an opinion: as a product of the mind, it is a formal statement of a fact, inference, experience or opinion. It requires all the thinking powers to form a judgment.

2. All judgments, in this sense, are formed by a comparison of contrasts and similarities, however slight these may be, in which intuition furnishes the basis of self-evident or axiomatic truth. This thing is not that thing is the basis of all discrimination and inference.

3. Hence the order of all thought movement is "From the known to the related unknown." (Illus.) ·

a.

"What is it?" is the first inquiry of the human mind, and consequently the answering of it constitutes the first step in thinking. As the mind struggles to know, other and similar inquiries are begotten. The study of things (physics) is therefore the first study for the child: and how eager he is to know things and their designationsnames. Reading from text-books is therefore by no means the first study in the correct process of learning.

b. "Where is it?" is perhaps the second point of inquiry, as direction and distance must early be determined, giving or determining location in space. This gives rise to topography or the knowlege of places, which soon ripens into geography, which is naturally among the first studies of childhood—not the geography we find usually in books, but as we find it in places and in the earth itself. This gives also the requisite bodily exercise, and language comes here as a necessity, not as an imposed task. It never should become such. Language is therefore incidental.

c. "How many?" is perhaps the third step in child inquiry and thinking. This gives rise to number lessons or exercises which readily accompany lessons on things and their places, or physics and geography. Thus we have the three important studies, physics, geography and mathe

matics, all accompanied by language as a necessary medium in thinking; and all this is prefigured and represented in the child's necessities.

d. "What use or value?" probably constitutes the fourth step or inquiry in child thought. It leads directly to the industries of the earth. The natural inclination of childhood to do something is its most redeeming characteristic. Upon the proper gratification of this desire depends the child's future character and destiny. The door to child culture is set wide open here. Why not enter in at this door instead of breaking in in some unnatural way? [See "Lesson in Pedagogy."]

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e. May I have some?" is still another natural child inquiry. It is natural to desire possession. This inquiry represents or embodies the two great contending forces in human nature, especially child nature. The desire to possess a part in the world's affairs is commendable, but to possess the whole is reprehensible: and no desire for possession is excusable on the mere ground of selfishness, but that it may be used for the good of others. The two great contending yet reconcilable forces in human nature, viz., egoism and altruism, or selfishness and benevolence, must be harmonized at every step of the education of the child. The excess of the former has set mankind at variance in all ages of the world. The excess of the latter is scarcely possible.

NOTE. Let classes discuss these two principles of human nature — their proper and improper uses in the affairs of the world—especially the true relations of "Labor and Capital." This topic will appear in our last article under "Modern Pedagogy."

DEFINITION XIV

Reasoning is a process of the mind whereby general judgments are construed, both in ordinary discourse and in argumentative disquisition, so that logical conclusions upon any given subject or subjects may be formed. It requires careful discrimination and close thought.

REMARKS AND ILLUSTRATIONS

I. REASON, the basis of reasoning, is the power the mind has to form conclusions; and reasoning is the process by which this is carried on.

2. The process of reasoning is based upon intuition, as the mind naturally or intuitively assumes as true those things given, not reached, by intuition. Indeed, intuition is a species of reason without argumentation.

3. There are two general processes of reasoning, as follows: a. The Inductive, in which the mind proceeds from the particular to the general, sometimes called the synthetic method or process; and

b. The Deductive, in which the mind proceeds from the general to the particular; called also the analytic process. Both are equally satisfactory, since the one implies the other, and since the conclusions reached are identical if the processes are properly conducted; for however slight the probability of the truth of a conclusion reached or inferred through a process of induction may be, when the individual cases of agreement are sufficient in number, the certainty of proof is as great or satisfactory as proof by deduction. Indeed, both methods have been criticised by recent writers. Even the famous "Dictum of Aristotle," viz., that "Whatever may be affirmed or denied of a class may be affirmed or denied of whatever comes under that class," has been called in question.1

c. Analogical Reasoning might be named as a third method of reasoning; but while it sets forth arguments analogically, or assumes a likeness or unlikeness as a ground for belief or conclusion, it only employs what may be included under one of the other two forms.

4. The syllogism, which is a formal arrangement of the terms of an argument by which logical conclusions are reached, is the formidable weapon of the latter process, to which all its statements may be reduced, and whose terms are recognized as

a. Major premise, making affirmation of a class of things, as all men are mortal; and

1 John Stuart Mill. [See Mark Hopkins in his "Outline Study of Man."]

b. Minor premise, asserting that the individual belongs to this class, as John is a man; hence

c. The conclusion, assuming that what is true of the whole class is true of all individuals of the class-John is mortal.

5. There are several forms of syllogism which cannot be given here. They will be readily recognized by practice in logic. Frequently, however, the terms are transposed; but more frequently suppressed, being readily supplied in the mind of the writer or reasoner: as John is mortal, since all men are mortal, and John is a man. The major premise when stated formally always contains the conclusion, etc.

NOTE I.-It might be well for the learner to practice these transpositions and omissions in order to familiarize the mind with them. The main thing, however, in reasoning, is clear and concise statement, leaving the mind of the reader or hearer to infer and supply, if need be, the legitimate transpositions and suppressions.

NOTE II.-Reflection is sometimes regarded as a separate and distinct power of the mind, not a faculty, however, since it is only a special application of many mental functions for specific purposes. It is the continued turning back of mind in activity, dwelling upon its own movements in order to determine more accurately the soundness, value and fitness of its thoughts and conclusions, and often discovering new truths and applications. This latter, however, is a species of contemplation, or the continual dwelling of the mind upon some points in an argument. It is also known as concentration. All these are but parts of a reasoning process implying analysis and synthesis, deduction and induction, and requiring attention and interest, memory and imagination, comparison and discrimination, abstraction and differentiation, identification and unification, conception and classification; all of which are implied in different processes of reasoning. Reflection not only implies retrospection, but it may be accompanied by introspection and prospection, or a species of prophecy.

NOTE III. Further illustrations of these mental phenomena will be given under a series of lessons on "The laws of mental growth," or the "Mind at work," pedagogy.