For instance, in lecturing on the Confederation of 1781, the lecturer may rearrange the narrative into the principal topics, — such as the formation of the Articles, finances, commerce, foreign relations, and internal difficulties; he may select the attitude of the state in which he lives as typical; he may quote passages from the two Websters, Hamilton, Madison, and Washington, to bring out the discontent of American statesmen with their own system. Short, vigorous quotations add life and point to a lecture; but long quotations should be avoided, as they destroy the confidence of a student in the lecturer - unless they are from original documents, and these should be read by the student.

Care should be taken not to talk over the heads of students, and also not to talk to them as children, unacquainted with the ordinary course of American history. Too much pains cannot be taken to bring out the essential things in a period, and to suggest the underlying conditions of the life of the people, which are the basis of history.

§ 62. Note-Taking.

Lectures of value are always so far different from the books on the same subject that the student needs to take notes. The practice trains the mind to grasp principles and to condense them into brief statement. A good note-book cements the parts of the course together, and may be useful to the student in later study, or in his own teaching. The note-book should further be so conducted as to leave space for the entry of brief abstracts from the reading. The following suggestions may prove helpful to students and to teachers who wish to put their material together in a permanent and convenient form.

I. Have a regular SYSTEM.

2.

If you have worked out a system of YOUR OWN which satisfies you, do not change it.

3. SHORTHAND is not a great convenience, unless the notes are afterwards put into a form which may be read by any one.

A system of recognizable ABBREVIATIONS is desirable.

4.

5.

Take notes ALL THE TIME during the lecture.

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6. A word-for-word reproduction of what you hear is much less valuable to you than your own CONDENSED FORM, embodying the lecturer's ideas.

7. Distinguish in your own mind the HEADS of the lecture, as it proceeds, and paragraph your notes accordingly.

8. Aim to set down the SUBSTANCE OF GENERAL STATEMENTS, in your own words, rather than to note a part of each sentence. 9. Practice getting the EXACT WORDS of significant phrases or quotations.

IO. If you miss something important, ASK TO HAVE IT RE

PEATED.

II. If you lose a lecture, FILL UP THE BLANK immediately, from the note-book of a fellow-student.

12. After each lecture, go over your notes, and clearly INDICATE THE HEADS: (a) by catch-words in the margin; or (b) by underlining words.

13. Once a week REVIEW the notes taken since the previous review.

14. Make out a brief TABLE OF CONTENTS, as you go along, referring to pages of your note-book.

Every student should devise for himself a system of note-taking, and having once devised a satisfactory method, he should adhere to it at all hazards. The one thing which will seriously impair the usefulness of any system, how good soever it may be in other respects, is the use of a note-book with fixed leaves. Separate sheets or pieces of paper are indispensable, and only one topic should be noted on one piece of paper. The main desiderata of a good system of note-taking are, that it should be (1) selfindexing, (2) portable, (3) always available: doubtless no system fills all these requirements. Following are three methods employed by at least three well-known and successful students of American history.

I. I. Use a note-book, or better, loose sheets of note paper ruled in three vertical columns: a narrow one next to the outer edge; about one-half of the width in a middle column; about onethird in an inner column. Let there be a broad horizontal line an

inch or more from the top.

2.

Enter your notes in the middle column; dates and headings (if desired) in the outer column.

3. Do not rewrite the notes taken in class.

4.

Enter abstracts or quotations from your later readings in the inner column, each opposite the passage in the notes which it is meant to illustrate.

5. Across the top of the page write a running heading in two, three, or four members, summarizing the matter on the page; e.g., "Methods: - Lectures :- -Note-Taking."

6. Begin to write on the right side of the open book and begin each distinct general head on a new leaf.

7.

Each leaf being thus complete in itself may at any time be detached and used in another connection; or others may be interleaved, without disturbing the logical connection.

8. Copy or reproduce tables, diagrams, or maps before the succeeding lecture.

II. I. Use loose sheets of paper 3 x 4 inches.

2.

3.

4.

Write on only one side of each sheet.

Do not rewrite notes once taken.

Attach abstracts or quotations from your later reading to your first piece of paper on that topic with one of the many convenient fasteners made for the purpose, or with a common pin.

5.

7.

Across the top of the first page write a running heading. 6. Begin to write near the upper left-hand corner of the sheet. Each leaf or collection of leaves, being thus complete in itself, may at any time be taken from its original place and used in another connection; or other leaves may be introduced without disturbing the arrangement.

These pieces of paper and collections of sheets can be stood on their lower edges either in boxes or held together by rubber bands. The notes on a large number of books and on many topics occupy little space and are easily arranged and rearranged.

III. I. Take the first piece of paper that comes to hand.

2. Make such notes on it as one desires.

3.

Have some recognized mode of arrangement, chronologically by countries or divisions of countries; or follow the arrange

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ment of some familiar and well-indexed book, which will thus serve

as a key.

4. Arrange your notes once a week, according to this system, in large-paper envelopes or portfolios and stand them in boxes.

This method requires no special kind of paper, indexes itself, is not cumbersome, and is cheap. Its efficiency depends, however, on the skill with which the classification is made and the persistency with which it is adhered to. Whenever material can be arranged chronologically by topics this system has been found to work well. It may be added that two of the largest works on American history have been prepared on this scheme.

§ 63. Use of Notes.

A good set of notes should thus be a sort of elaborated syllabus of the course; and if it include abstracts and quotations from collateral books, it will serve always to recall to the student's mind what he has once heard, read, and pondered. But no self-respecting instructor allows the notes of his lectures alone to be sufficient to prepare for examinations, or to become in any way the sole test of diligence and knowledge. No instructor can afford to let his own words go out as the only or final utterance on a question; comparison of views and a filling out of details must be exacted by the required reading (§ 56) and written work (§§ 65–73).

§ 64. Giving out References.

To aid the reading it is a common and useful practice during the lectures to give out references, more or less specific, to the best literature on the topic under discussion. Some lecturers mention books in the course of the lecture; others put the references on the blackboard; others prepare them in cyclostyle or other multiplying process, and distribute them; others arrange them in print, and require the students to provide themselves with sets; others use some published topical outline. There is something to be said for and against each of these systems. On the one hand, too rigid an adherence to a printed outline interferes with a lecturer's

proper relations and influence with his class; on the other hand, the copying of long lists of books from the lecturer or the blackboard sacrifices valuable time and oftentimes interferes with the attention of the class. Perhaps the best method is for the students to have a printed set of references at their desks to which the lecturer may refer, stating the strong points of this author or the weak points of that writer, giving the biographical and other details which show how far an author had had exceptional opportunities to know the truth, either as a contemporaneous actor in the scenes described or through access to material since destroyed or not used by any other writer. Information of this kind adds life to a list of books and often arouses attention which might otherwise remain dormant. The lecturer should especially point out such authors as disagree with his positions, and should encourage the reading of books written from a point of view other than his

own.

In whatever way the system is carried out, the references should be unmistakable, - that is, author and title should be so clearly indicated that no confusion can arise. If a part of the references are specific, to volume and pages, much more reading will be done. The indispensable habit of searching among books for a point of view to one's mind, the useful dipping into books, the acquaintance with many authors, these advantages may be gained from the various forms of written work which will now be described.