since the days of Hesiod, and the want of cattle to work the ground-in other words, of capital. Mr. Gropius, the Austrian Consul, once said to Mr. Strong, that if the Bavarian government would send into Greece a couple of thousand of oxen, it would benefit the country more than twice as many bayonets. 'Greece,' says Mr. Strong, could easily find room for five millions of inhabitants, and furnish food for them all.' Mr. Strong, indeed, looks forward to fill up this want of cultivators in proportion to the productive capabilities of the country, not merely by the regular increase of the native Greek population, but by extensive immigration.

The tide of emigration, from the over-peopled states of Northern Europe, has for many years flowed towards America; latterly, it has taken a turn in the direction of Australia, but, by and by, it may alter its course, and set in towards the shores of Greece, which offers many inducements to colonists. In the first place, the fineness and salubrity of its climate render a house almost superfluous for nine months of the year, and the settlers, on their arrival in the spring, might, without any hardship, live in tents till they had finished their agricultural labours for the season, and then be able to construct their habitations, for which there is abundance of materials, before the commencement of the periodical rains. Secondly, they would not have to encounter such difficulties as meet them in North America, of clearing the ground by incalculable labour, felling tree by tree, and then digging out the roots; but on the first day of their arrival in Greece, by setting fire to the shrubs and bushes, they could clear as much land as they require, and commence ploughing the next morning. The only beasts of prey they would find would be the harmless jackals, which, at the utmost, might make a midnight attempt on their poultry. Lastly, they would find every facility afforded them by the government. All religions are freely tolerated; and foreign colonists, coming to Greece with the intention of purchasing land and establishing themselves in the kingdom, enjoy the privilege of importing free of duty, &c. &c. &c. Strong, p. 164.

(Here follows a schedule.)

A third great impediment, however, to the more successful cultivation of Greece

* We may here refer to the new Dictionary of Antiquities' already noticed, for a series of articles on the agricultural operations and implements of the Greeks and Romans, executed with remarkable care, and illustrated by most curious engravings.

+ The Greek Church has declared itself independent of the Patriarch of Constantinople. The old love of controversy has already revived: we have seen several theological publications, of small compass indeed, printed at Athens in ancient Greek, on the whole not discreditable in style: one on the question of' Mixed Marriages,' which has already begun to agitate the community.

is the want, or rather the partial distribution, of water. The catabothra, or emissaries, among the most curious and gigantic works of ancient Greece, and to which some attention was paid by the Turks, are now completely choked up, and vast plains of the most fertile land are become stagnant marshes, or the beds of shallow lakes. If land should rise in demand, the gove nment, by a wise, even if costly, expenditure, on the cleansing out and restoring these vast drains, would no doubt amply repay themselves in the end for such an outlay. We quote Mr. Strong's observations on this emissary of the Lake Copais, as well on its own account, as for the passage which follows relating to the general change in the watercourses of the country since the flourishing days of Greece.

'That Lake Copaïs might be drained, there would be to furnish the pecuniary means. can be no reasonable doubt; the only difficulty Crates of Chalcis, an eminent hydraulic engineer in the time of Alexander the Great, perforated sufficient size to admit of the passage of the an artificial channel through the mountains, of which were thus carried off into the sea, the waters, though increased by the winter rains, mouth of this artificial channel being opposite the island of Euboea. The length of the conduit it in case of its becoming obstructed, upwards of was about an English mile; and in order to clean tions from the surface of the mountain through forty vertical shafts were sunk at different stawhich it passed, so as to permit of easy access to the part where the stoppage existed.

choked up, but the vertical shafts still exist and
"This magnificent work is now completely
the whole might be cleared out, and thus drain
the extensive plain of Copaïs. The inundations
the winter, after the fall of the first rains, not
The water begins to rise in
are very gradual.
with the boisterous impetuosity of an Alpine
mountain torrent, tearing up trees and destroy-
ing houses, but so gently as to be almost imper-
which is annually submerged, appears again
ceptible; and an ancient Hellenic causeway,
teration, though one half the year under water.
periodically without any visible damage or al-

'But the clearing out of the subterraneous waer-courses though the most efficacious and radical, are not the only means to be adopted; for as the water which covers the greatest part of the country is only about a couple of feet deep, a solid wall of not more than three feet in height would protect many thousands of acres from inundation, the waters of which are now only carried off and exhaled in the summer, when it is too late to cultivate the land.

There is no doubt that in Greece the appearance of the country has changed most materially during the last twenty or thirty centuries; and though the positions of mountains and rivers remain the same, even their aspect must have undergone a complete change. Herodotus says that the Athenians hunted bears in the forests on Mount Lycabettus, where now there is

tion afforded us.

scarcely a shrub to be found a foot high. From navy, and church establishment of Greece other writers we know that Hymettus, Pen- we must content ourselves with a general telicon, and Parnassus were covered with forests reference to Mr. Strong's book-not withto their summits. They now present the ap-out rendering our thanks for the informapearance of skeletons of mountains, bare rocks without any vegatation, or only producing a few stunted trees, whose roots seek in vain for nourishment among the soilless crevices. The trees which formerly covered these mountains having died away by degrees, the soil kept together by their roots, and increased by the decomposition of their leaves, has, in the course of time, been washed down by the heavy periodical rains into the valleys, the level of which has, no doubt, considerably risen, as is abundantly proved by many antique ruins having been discovered in digging the foundations of modern houses. In the plain of Olympia the pedestals of the columns of the Temple of Jupiter, which have lately been discovered, are nearly twenty feet below the present surface of the ground.

When, indeed, we throw off the archæologist-when we consider Greece, not merely as a sacred treasure-house of the monuments and of the lofty reminiscences of antiquity, but look upon it as taking its place, however humble, in the great federation of European nations-we think that, as a Christian power, in its peculiar position, it may become of greater political importance than many may be at present disposed to allow. In this small kingdom a great man might, we think, at least lay the foundation of great things. If, by a wise and paternal administration, he could at the same time people the deserted fields, and cultivate them to their height; if, while thus fully developing the national resources, he could create a national spirit; if, confining her military expenditure to the defence of the country, Greece were to aspire gradually to become what nature seems to have destined her for, in her limited waters, and what she was in the palmy days of Athens, a maritime power, she might gradually grow in consideration. And when the time comes, as come it apparently must, sooner or later-when changes take place, in at least the European dominions of Ma

That the rivers have shared the same fate is also easily proved. The Cephissus, for instance, has dwindled down to a little stream, not sufficient for irrigating the gardens in the plain of Attica; and yet, at one time, it was so deep as to form a barrier to the progress of Xerxes and his whole army, who, not being able to cross it, encamped upon its banks. The classical Ilyssus is now quite dry, though the buttresses of the magnificent bridge which connected the Athenian side of the river with the Stadium still exist, showing that the span of the arch was fifty feet; and, judging by appearances, the depth of water must have been at least twelve or fourteen feet. At Sparta are still to be seen the iron rings inserted in the stones forming the quays of the Eurotas, formerly used for the purpose of mak- hometanism-when the waning Crescent ing fast the galleys. The water in that river now does not reach to the knee in any part; and the Inachus, which was formerly navigable up to Argos, is a dry torrent-bed except during the rainy season.'-Strong, pp.167,-169.

Artesian wells are proposed to remedy this defect, but the Greeks, according to Mr. Strong, are ignorant even of the common pump.

All such improvements, of course, must depend on the finances of the country. We find, however, from the abstract of income and expenditure, that there was in 1840-for the first time indeed-but still, if we may trust the figures, in that year, the last of which we have the financial statement, there was a surplus of 819,770 dollars. The revenue shows a regular and progressive increase, the expenditure appears to diminish. This, with the large and gradually available fund which the state possesses in the property of the soil, might offer, under prudent yet wisely speculative management, resources proportionately more hopeful than those of most European kingdoms.

For the rest of the details of the army,

may be compelled to retire to its native Asia-it might be convenient to have a small, indeed, but flourishing and well-governed Christian state, whose frontiers might be advanced without danger to the balance of Europe; and which, strong, not in her own strength, but in that of the great powers of Europe, who might find it their interest to put her forward, might receive accession of territory, of which no one could be jealous; and obtain by common consent a part of those spoils which might otherwise give rise to interminable wars.

But if Greece is to arrive at this glorious destiny, its sceptre must be wielded with a firm and vigorous hand; and whether it is now, or is likely to be, so wielded, is a question on which we must, at present at least, decline to enter. The scattered intelligence which reaches us seems by no means altogether of propitious omen; yet some highly intelligent countrymen of our own have of late, after deliberate examination, established their families in the capital of King Otho.

ART. VI.-1. Report of the Commissioners | pacities for enjoyment shall be satisfied. for Inquiring into the Condition of Child- To man alone he has entrusted the perilous ren employed in Mines, &c., with two Ap- duty of guarding his own happiness. Lapendices of Evidence. Presented to both bour for sustenance is his lot, in common Houses of Parliament by Command of with all flesh; variety in the kind, and inHer Majesty. 3 vols. Folio, pp. 2022. tensity in the degree of labour, is a necesLondon, 1842. sary inheritance, on which the very existence of the social and moral system hinges. But whether or not he shall vindicate, in the midst of this, his noble nature and destinies, depends greatly upon himself, and also in no small degree on the society in which his lot is cast.

which his lot is cast. Are his moral and physical energies duly fostered and directed? or are they abused and clouded by the insatiable avarice of those who employ him, crushed by their power, or converted from a service of freedom to slavery? Let us take this criterion, and judge.

these rough natures? Have proprietors, | The simple test of each man's condition is enriched by the development of minerals, whether he has all that is requisite for the enabled the Church to increase her func-due discharge of his duties in the sphere in tionaries in proportion to the growth of new populations? These are questions which must be asked, and answered, before the burden of change is laid on a few, which should be borne by many. We feel that this benefit must be conferred by all; and the power of the state must be propped by the self-denial of the owner-and the mild, The moment that a new colliery is to be untiring energies of the Church must be won (i. e. established), the face of the counaided by the kindly influences of neighbour- try is changed-numerous ugly cottages hood-before it can be hoped that such a spring up like a crop of mushrooms-long race as the miners can be brought to aban- rows of waggons, laden with ill-assorted don their rooted prejudices and brutal in- furniture, are seen approaching, and with dulgences. Living in the midst of dangers them the pitmen and their families. This -and on that account supplied with higher is the signal for the departure of the gentry, wages, and with much leisure to spend unless they are content to remain amidst them they unite in their characters all the offscouring of a peculiar, a mischievthat could flow from sources which render ous, and unlettered race,' (p. 519, App. 1.) man at once reckless and self-indulgent-a to see their district assume a funereal colour hideous combination, when unleavened by black with dense volumes of rolling religion and the daily influences of society -little likely to be removed by Acts of Parliament alone, and never if Acts of Parliament find none but official hands to aid in enforcing them.

It is essential, before we attempt a rapid sketch of the lives of the hewers of coal, that the reader should establish in his own mind some standard by which to test their actual condition; for a very unjust estimate will be found if he forgets to divide what is from what is not essential to their lot. Each and every profession and calling has its dangers, which are peculiar to it, and to a certain degree inseparable from it; and hence the comparison must not be made between one class and another, so much as between what each class is, and what it ought to be.

There are many states more deadly than that of the miner, and very many where the amount of poverty and suffering is at least equal, if not greater. The army, in the discharge of its ennobling duties at home and abroad exhibits a greater mortality. Many sections of our artisans and manufacturers are in these respects fully as deeply smitten--luxury and pampering send as many to the workhouse as privation and want. In the economy of the universe, life seems of infinitely small account, as compared with duties discharged: these have no direct reference to time, but to that duration of which time is but a fragment; these are as compatible with fewness of years as with length of days-and the award is pronounced to be not more for him who has toiled the whole day in the moral vineyard, than for them who had the opportunity of labouring but one hour.

smoke,' and echoing with the clatter of endless strings of coal-waggons.

Thus, morally and physically insulated, the collier becomes gregarious and clannish, and is rarely seen by any save those who traffic with him. A stranger, to obtain a view, must go for the express purpose, and at some hour either before they descend or when they emerge from the pit, when he cannot fail to be struck with the gaunt and sinewy form, the black grisly aspect, and peculiar costume of this singular race, who stalk across the fields, clothed in a short jacket and trousers of flannel, with a candle stuck in the hat, and a pipe in the mouth.

A more intimate knowledge of his peculiarities is a difficult task, requiring much tact and a circuitous approach. A prominent feature of his character,' says a commissioner, is deep-rooted suspicion of his employer-his master (he thinks) can have no desire to benefit him:' a trait which has arisen from the practice of the proprietor rarely being the worker of the mine; while the lessee has little interest in common with the men beyond the bond by which he is to obtain the most return of labour for the least expenditure. The lessee contracts with the butty' or viewer, to bring up the coal; and he and his doggy * hire the gang of pitmen, furnish them with tools, pay their wages and superintend their work.

The entrance to most mines is by means

*This is the sobriquet given to the foreman by other by similar appellations, than by their proper a race who are individually better known to each names.

of a well or shaft, varying in diameter from commodations, and we request the reader seven to fifteen feet, the sides of which to bear this constantly in mind. Where ought to be, and generally are, lined with the seam of coal is large, as in Staffordwood, iron, or brickwork, for a certain ex- shire, the underground works are such as tent. They are of amazing depths in the to afford every facility of movement and region of the Tyne-and comparatively posture, while, in the West Riding of Yorkshallow in Staffordshire and Yorkshire. shire, one of the sub-commissioners deThe shaft of Monkwearmouth Colliery scribes his exploration of some of the paswould contain the Monument eight times sages in words betokening a very lively piled on itself. Up and down this shaft reminiscence of his journey: 'I had to the men are daily sent by means of ma- creep on my hands and knees the whole chinery; each journey averaging from two distance, the height being barely 20 inches, to three minutes in the profound mine just and then I went still lower on my breast, mentioned; while in shallower shafts, of and crawled like a turtle to get up to the 600 feet, about a hundred men can be let headings.' In others, Mr, Scriven was down in one hour. The sensations in a hurried,' i. e. pushed, by a miner, on a flat similar attempt by a stranger are described board mounted on four wheels, or in a corve as awful. The motion as the skip' (or (i. e. basket) with his head hanging out basket of four) descends, is not in itself over the back, and his legs over the front, disagreeable-the light diminishing grad- in momentary anticipation of being scalped ually until there is total darkness: when by the roof, or of meeting with a broken arrived at the bottom, all that could be head from a pendant rock.' These passeen of the heavens up the shaft seemed to sages are of great length; for at the Booth be of the size of a sugar-basin' (p. 8)-and Pit (he says) I walked, rode, and crept this in a comparatively shallow mine. 1800 yards to one of the nearest faces.' And now a new world is opened:-there (App. II. p. 62.) In many pits the drainare roads branching out for miles in every age is bad, so that the men work in water direction, some straight, broad, and even, -which in some is brackish-and in the others undulating and steep, others narrow, Monkwearmouth Colliery produces boils propped by huge pillars; the whole illu on the skin of freshmen. There is, or minated, and exhibiting black, big-boned ought to be, a most careful system of ventifigures, half-naked, working amid the clat- lation, otherwise the whole community are ter of carriages, the incessant movements in imminent peril; and this is effected by of horses, the rapid pace of hurriers, the means of another shaft placed within a roar of furnaces, and the groaning and short distance of the first, and connected plunging of steam-engines. Perhaps in with it by a passage, in shallow mines; or no community is there such an amount of by dividing the longer shaft of the deeper restless and violent muscular activity-and ones into two or three perpendicular segit is literally incessant; for though the ments, and keeping up a large fire in one, main body of workers ascend daily, still so that the rarefied air in this sucks up the the economy of the mine requires constant colder air which descends the others, and superintendence on the spot. The com- is made by means of doors to go into every munity consists of men and boys-and, in part of the mine before it makes its exit. some, of women-horses, and asses. Rats Thus the noxious gases-carbonic acid, or and mice find their way in the provender; 'choke-damp'-and the carburetted hydroand cats are brought down to keep these in gen or wild-fire-fire-damp,'' sulphurcheck. The cricket is chirping every- are diluted and carried off. The generawhere; the midge, and sundry varieties of tion of these gases is, in the northern mines, insects, are found. The chief, if not the incessant and rapid, so that one ventilating sole, of the vegetable tribes, are fungi, door neglected for five minutes is sufficient such as mushrooms, which multiply near to cause an explosion. (App. I., p. 125.) the manure. Such is the habitation for twelve hours of each day-therefore, for half the years of his life of the miner. Everything is adverse to him. His own ignorance and vice

The temperature of these regions is always warm, and in many mines oppressively hot, so that, even when there is no particular exertion, abundant perspiration flows from the body: this accounts for the nudity of the miner; who, however, in well-ventilated mines, is very sensible of the changes in the atmosphere aboveground. There is great variety in the ac

too often the avarice of his employerthe light-which in winter is darkness to him from Sunday to Sunday-earth, air, fire, and water combine, and are ready to burst the chains which art has forged for them, and overwhelm him in the twinkling