territory, which his father had lost, bounded on the east by the Ticino. The restoration of the King of Sardinia was held to be the best safeguard against another French invasion, but it was useless so long as a French army could be landed at Genoa. The Genoese had been encouraged by an envoy from England to drive out the French, and restore their old Republic. They were basely deceived, and the city was handed over to the King of Sardinia, and became part of his kingdom. Genoa has gained greatly by this change, but this does not make the crime of betraying her independence any the less. The only excuse which can be put forward is that the change has turned out to have been necessary for the welfare of Italy. No such excuse can be pleaded for giving Venice over to Austria, to make up for the large share of Poland which Russia took. Milan also was given back to the Austrian Emperor, Francis the Second, and thus the Austrian kingdom of Lombardo-Venetia was set up. Parma and Piacenza were given to Maria Louisa, the wife of Buonaparte, the daughter of the Austrian Emperor. Lucca was given to the Bourbons of Parma, but, on the death of Maria Louisa, they were to regain their former possessions, and were to give up Lucca. Lucca was then to pass to the family of the Austrian Ferdinand the Third, who was made Grand Duke of Tuscany again. Francis the Fourth, the son of Beatrice, heiress of the ancient house of Este and of the Austrian Archduke Ferdinand, was made Duke of Modena, and when Lucca was joined to Tuscany, he was to receive Lunigiana from the Grand Duke. Pope Pius the Seventh regained all the Papal States, including Bologna, Ferrara, Forli, and Ravenna, which had been taken away from the See in 1796. These were called the Northern Legations. Austria claimed the right to place garrisons in Ferrara and Commacchio. The Pope protested against this, but a small body of troops was placed in each of these towns. As soon as Pope Pius

had re-entered Rome, he restored the Order of the Jesuits. This was agreeable to the wishes of the same governments which had been foremost in causing the suppression of the Order, for the Jesuits had shown themselves good allies to the Bourbons in their distress. The kings of the South of Europe who had suffered from the French Revolution now with one accord made alliance with the Pope and the Jesuits, who seemed the representatives and upholders of the old state of tyranny. The kingdom of Naples was restored to King Ferdinand the Fourth of Sicily, and he took the title of King of the Two Sicilies. Thus the Austrian Francis the Second gained the chief power in Italy, as the Austrians Charles the Fifth and Charles the Sixth had done. One thing which the wars of Buonaparte had destroyed was not set up again at Vienna. This was the Holy Roman Empire, of which for so long a time the kingdom of Italy had formed a part, first in reality and then in name alone. The Empire, which was in theory elective, had become practically hereditary in the reigning family of Austria. It was founded by Augustus, it was renewed by Charles the Great, it was restored by Otto, and it came to an end by the abdication of Francis the Second. The peace of Italy was for a moment disturbed. Joachim Murat could not allow his kingdom to pass from him without a blow. He landed with about thirty followers on the coast of Lower Calabria, and was immediately taken and shot.

CHAPTER XI.

ITALY FREE AND UNITED.

Italy kept in slavery by her rulers, who are upheld by Austria; the Carbonari and the insurrection in the North and South (1)—the insurrections in the Romagna, Modena, and Parma (2)—Charles Albert, Giuseppe Mazzini, and Young Italy; the Bandiera attempt (3)—the Moderate party; Cesare Balbo and the Abate Gioberti; Giuseppe Giusti, the Marquess Gino Capponi, and Baron Bettino Ricasoli; Alessandro Manzoni (4)—Pope Pius the Ninth; his liberalism, punished by Austria (5)—the War of Independence; the defeat of Charles Albert, and the end of the Pope's liberalism (6)—the war carried on by the Republicans; the sieges of Rome and Venice (7)-King Victor Emmanuel and Count Cavour (8) -Buonaparte and Villafranca; the cession of Savoy; the freedom of Lombardy and of Central Italy (9)—Giuseppe Garibaldi works the freedom of Sicily and Southern Italy (10)—the Kingdom of Italy; the difficulties of the Government (11)—Urbano Rattazzi and Giuseppe Garibaldi; the Aspromonte affair; the September Convention; the change of capital (12)—the freedom of Venetia (13)—the Mentaná affair (14)—Rome, the capital (15)—Italy since 1870 (16).

1. The Insurrections of 1820-1.-After the Treaty of Vienna Italy was at peace, but was still enslaved and divided. The only Italian Republic was the little San Marino; the only native Italian ruler, besides the Pope, was the King of Sardinia, and Victor Emmanuel was an indolent despot. Three centuries of foreign rule had lowered the character of the Italian people, although during the French rule a great change for the better had begun. The Italians of the Southern Kingdom were sunk lower

than those of the north, for they had borne the yoke far longer. But all through the peninsula a low standard of morals had become very general, save among people of education. The Italians had learnt some social vices from the Spaniards, but the want of courageous perseverance and, above all, of good faith, which, for a time, hindered the work of their statesmen, was the general result of tyranny. The people had long been shut out from political life, and they sought distraction in frivolous amusement. This was supplied by the Lottery, which brought money into the exchequer of the governments which set it up, but which made the people idle and reckless. Italy was ruled by despots, who had to keep their power by violence and by means of spies; the people naturally met violence by treachery, and foiled the police by secret societies. The Austrians helped the weaker sovereigns to keep the people in slavery, and encouraged them to refuse all demands for a constitutional government. All the Italian sovereigns were in strict alliance with the Austrian Emperor, who, in return, guaranteed to keep them on their thrones. It was hopeless for the Italians by themselves to try to get rid of rulers who were upheld by so great a power: it was still more hopeless to make the attempt without union of action or place. Nevertheless, such attempts were made, and failed again and again, until at last the deliverance of Italy was brought about by the wisdom of statesmen who were content to bide their time, as well as by those who were ready to act when the time came. Before the treaty of Vienna, plots were made by the members of a secret society, who were called the Carbonari. These men were violent democrats, and they now hoped to get rid of the rulers of Italy, and to set up a democratic government. The Neapolitans were much influenced by this society, and, in 1820, they called on King Ferdinand to grant them a constitution. They made a

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revolt so suddenly that the King was forced to grant them all that they asked for. But a few months later the Emperors of Russia and Austria, and the Kings of Prussia, Sardinia, and Naples, had a conference at Laybach in Austria, and agreed to put down the insurrection. King Ferdinand, with the help of the Austrians, soon put down the movement. A plot of the Carbonari was also discovered at Milan, which was made to drive out the Austrians, and perhaps to murder the Viceroy and some of his ministers. An insurrection of a better kind was made in Piedmont. Although Victor Emmanuel had married an Austrian, yet he could not forget that the Austrians had not made a single effort to keep his father on the throne. This feeling was encouraged by the Liberal party in the kingdom, headed by the minister Prospero Balbo. They wished to see their State liberally governed. For if the government of the kingdom became liberal, Piedmont might then take the headship of Italy, and a centre would be made to which Italians might look with hope. The people tried to force their King to take up a liberal policy. In March 1821, first Alessandria and then Turin made an insurrection: the people of both places crying out for a constitutional government, such as Ferdinand of Naples had for the moment granted, and for war with Austria. But the King had been at Laybach, and had there promised that he could not make any concessions. He kept his word to the great sovereigns, and chose to give up his crown rather than have his power cut short. He was succeeded by his brother Charles Felix, who was at the time at Modena. In his absence Charles Albert, Prince of Carignano, was made regent. This prince was descended from Charles Emmanuel, and, as Charles Felix had no children, he was the next heir to the throne. He was much pressed by the more violent Liberals and by the CarDonari; and either willingly, or from fear, or perhaps to secure his own succession, he granted the people the liberties