serve as a warning to us of what may happen when our people seriously arouse themselves to shake off some of the banes that mar our blessings, and find to their surprise that they themselves have granted to the greatest abuses a means of hindering the cure.

Before many months, is coming the period for revising the constitution of the largest State of the Union, and interest may again be awakened in constitutional questions.

The ensuing work, therefore, though written mainly about the past, is directed toward the future. The time for taking thought precedes the time for taking action.

October, 1914.

C. M. W.

CONTENTS

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Importance attached to the Science of Government-Adams's
Labors-Periods in his Career as a Political Writer

THE FIRST PERIOD

CHAPTER II

EARLY DEMOCRATIC VIEWS

His Studies-Attitude toward England; Admiration of her Con-

stitution-Views on the State Constitutions: Short Terms;

Two Chambers; the Governor and Judges; Rotation in Office;

Religious Toleration-Views on the Confederacy: a Single

Congress

THE SECOND PERIOD

CHAPTER III

WRITINGS OF THIS PERIOD

Instigated by Turgot:-Misconception of Turgot's Plan, and Con-
dorcet's, also of Milton's and Hume's-An Instance of what
Adams condemned-Covers the Whole Science

5

13

I. DEVELOPMENT OF THE THEORY

CHAPTER IV

DIVISION AND CLASSIFICATION OF GOVERNMENTS

The Three Great Modern Inventions: to be considered chiefly the

Threefold Divisions of Departments and especially of the

Branches of the Legislative-These to be Equal and Indepen-

dent-Mixed and Simple Governments-The Kinds of Gov-

ernments-Republican-Kinds of Republics-(Confusion in

the subject-Bodin's Distinction between the State and its

Government).

20

CHAPTER V

BADNESS OF SIMPLE GOVERNMENTS, AND NEED OF A

BALANCE

Supposed to be Proved by Experience, also Rationally-Democracy

the Worst, Monarchy the Least Bad; Due to Insatiability of

the Passions, which need to be Checked and Balanced by One

Another-The Mechanical Principle of Unstable Equilibrium

between Two Forces, needing a Third to make it Stable, ap-

plied to Politics, requiring Three Powers in Government and

Three Orders in Society.

CHAPTER VI

37

THE ORDERS AND CLASSES IN GOVERNMENT AND SOCIETY

Inequality everywhere of Wealth, Birth, and Merit, forming an

inevitable Natural Aristocracy-Various Classifications of

These Orders-(Attempt to Harmonize them: Unsatisfactori-

ness at the Foundation of the System)-Similar Treatment

of Parties-The Orders to be introduced into Government,

at Least Two, with a Third Power to Balance between them

45

CHAPTER VII

CONTROL OF THE ARISTOCRATS IN MIXED GOVERNMENT

Evils of not admitting this Distribution of Powers in the Govern-

ment: Succession of Simple Governments, generally ending

in Despotism-Need of Controlling the Aristocrats and the

People, by Keeping them Apart, and Appointing an Arbiter

over them-Review of these Evils and the Remedy

II. THE PLAN OF GOVERNMENT

CHAPTER VIII

. 59

THE GENERAL STRUCTURE

The Three Orders forming Branches of the Legislature, Equal by

means of the Veto possessed by each, Independent through

Separate Derivation from the People, and Balancing One

Another by the Two Weakest Combining against the Strongest

-Indifferently in Theory, but in Practice more often the King

Mediating, or the Aristocracy being Checked

CHAPTER IX

74

THE EXECUTIVE

Put in the Legislative (Inconsistency thereof)-To have an Abso-

lute Veto (Objections thereto-Needlessness of the Equality

of the Branches; the Executive really Derivative; the True

Reason for the Separation; Allowableness of the Executive

being Appointed by the Legislature)-Need of its Unity

(not Proved: Example of Rome, of England)-The Ministry

-The Full Executive Power: (1) of Pardoning; (2) of Declar-

ing War and Making Treaties; (3) of Appointing to All Offices,

for (corruptive) Dickering with the Legislature, to prevent

Faction, etc. (Reasons for Appointments by the Legislature,

or a Council)-Not to have a Standing Army

80

CHAPTER X

THE SENATE

Its Purpose and Service-(On the Origination of Finance Bills)—

As Place of Ostracism for the too Powerful Men in the State-

Institution of the Executive and the Senate: together either

Elective or Hereditary, in either Case as Representative of

the Sovereign People-Right of the People to establish

Monarchy, and to depose by Revolution-Indefiniteness

about the establishment of a Peerage.

CHAPTER XI

117

THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES

One Branch, in Free Governments, always to be Reserved for Im-

mediate Representation by Election: Reasons for the Differ-

ence (Especially Weak in the case of the First Magistrate)

-The House of Representatives to possess the Power of

Impeaching, and of Withholding Supplies (this once Effective,

but under changed Conditions now an Anachronism)—Its

Constituency (need of Excluding the Aristocrats)-Five

Corrections of the English System-Rejection of Compulsory

Vacations

CHAPTER XII

131

THE TWO HOUSES AND THE EXECUTIVE

The Senate and the Lower House representative each of a Class

or Party, and the Executive Chief non-partizan—(Unwork-

ableness of the Scheme as intended, through Necessary Par-

tizanship of the Executive, and Insufficiency of his Mediative

Power, and a consequent Liability to Deadlock through

Lack of Power of Coercion caused by the Absolute Negative

in Each Branch; hence Loss of such Negative in England in

all but the Popular Branch; Historical Instances of Conflict

elsewhere-The Proper Arbiter the People-Dangers in our

Country from the Senate's Absolute Negative) .

149